UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


FROM   THE    LIBRARY   OF 

DR.  JOSEPH   LECONTE. 
GIFT  OF  MRS.  LECONTE. 

No. 


EXPERIMENTAL  EXERCISES 


PROBLEMS 


IN 


ELEMENTARY  CHEMISTRY 


TOGETHER  WITH  VARIOUS  CHEMICAL  TABLES,  AND  TABLES 
FOR  THE  CONVERSION  OF  COMMON  WEIGHTS 
AND  MEASURES  INTO  THOSE  OF 


THE   METRICAL   SYSTEM. 


FOR  THE  USE  OF  BEGINNERS. 


J.    G.   NORWOOD,    M.D., 

PROFESSOR  OF  NATURAL  SCIENCE  AND  NATURAL,  PHILOSOPHY, 
IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  THE  STATE  OF  MISSOURI. 


COLUMBIA,  MO.: 

PRINTED  FOR  THE  AUTHOR'S  CLASS. 

NEW  YORK  :  RICHARDSON  &  CO.,  14  BOND  STREET. 

1868. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1868,  by 
J.  G.  NORWOOD, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States,  for  the 
Western  District  of  Missouri. 

STEREOTYPED    AT    THE    FBANKLIN    TYPE    FOUNDKY,    CINCINNATI. 


NOTE. 


THE  following  pages  were  compiled  expressly  for  the  use  of  my  own 
classes,  and  without  any  view  to  general  publication.  The  Principals  of 
two  of  our  neighboring  Colleges,  however,  on  being  made  acquainted  with 
the  proposed  plan  of  instruction,  desiring  copies  for  the  use  of  their  pupils, 
I  have  had  an  additional  number  printed  for  them;  and,  if  the  method 
should  commend  itself  to  teachers  in  other  institutions,  the  edition  could 
be  extended  to  meet  their  wishes. 

The  work  is  a  mere  compilation  from  text-books  recently  published  in 
England,  by  some  of  the  most  eminent  and  successful  teachers  of  Ele- 
mentary Chemistry  in  the  Colleges  and  Universities  of  that  country. 
None  of  the  works  from  which  the  materials  were  extracted  have,  as  yet, 
been  republished  in  this  country.  They  are  Prof.  FRANKLAND'S  "Lecture 
Notes  for  Students,"  Prof.  GALLOWAY'S  "First  Step  in  Chemistry,"  and 
"Second  Step  in  Chemistry,"  Prof.  WILLIAMSON'S  "Chemistry  for  Stu- 
dents," Prof.  ROSCOE'S  "Lessons  in  Elementary  Chemistry,"  Prof.  WILSON'S 
"Inorganic  Chemistry,"  and  Prof.  HOFMANN'S  "Introduction  to  Modern 
Chemistry."  Most  of  the  Problems  have  been  extracted  from  Prof.  GALLO- 
WAY'S "First  Step,"  and  if  that  work  could  have  been  obtained  for  the 
use  of  my  classes,  there  would  have  been  less  necessity  for  this  compila- 
tion ;  but  repeated  efforts  to  obtain  copies,  made  during  the  last  year  and 
a  half,  only  resulted  in  the  information  that  it  was  "out  of  print."* 

The  experience  of  many  years,  as  a  teacher  of  Chemistry,  has  convinced 
me  that,  even  in  our  best  Colleges,  with  all  the  aids  of  apparatus,  and  in 
the  hands  of  thoroughly  qualified  teachers  and  manipulators,  a  large 
majority  of  pupils  fail  to  gain  such  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  the 
science,  as  ought  to  repay  them  for  the  time  faithfully  spent  in  the  at- 
tempt. This  failure  is  due,  I  think,  not  so  much  to  want  of  qualification 
in  the  teacher,  or  of  industry  in  the  student,  as  to  the  generally  defective 
plan  of  teaching.  If  we  put  out  of  view,  entirely,  the  eminently  practical 
nature  of  this  science,  considered  in  its  technical  relations,  and  consider 
it  only  as  part  of  the  general  means  of  mental  discipline,  we  shall  find 

*  Since  the  following  pages  were  in  type,  I  have  received  a  letter  (dated  January,  1868)  from 
the  London  publishers  of  "  The  First  Step  in  Chemistry,"  stating  that  a  new  edition  has  just 
been  published. 


4  NOTE. 

the  failure  quite  as  great  in  the  last  as  in  the  first  case.  The  student  has 
no  work  to  do  for  himself.  All  he  is  required  to  do,  or,  in  fact,  can  do, 
under  the  methods  pursued  in  many  of  our  Academical  Institutions,  is  to 
retain  in  his  memory  as  much  as  he  can  of  the  lecture,  memorize  the 
appointed  lesson  in  his  class-book,  and  recite  what  he  can  remember  of 
them  to  his  teacher  when  called  upon. 

Chemistry  is  a  science  of  numbers,  as  well  as  of  experiment;  and  if 
the  arrangements  in  our  Colleges  were  such  (and  they  ought  to  be)  as  to 
admit  of  every  student  using  the  apparatus  and  experimenting  for  himself, 
still  he  would  foil  to  master  the  principles  of  the  science  without  the  aid 
of  mathematics  and  the  blackboard.  Exercising  the  memory  only  is  not 
the  best  method,  either  for  making  chemists  or  for  disciplining  the  mind 
of  the  pupil.  Prof.  GALLOWAY,  of  Dublin,  who  was  among  the  first  to  pro- 
pose a  better  method  of  teaching  Chemistry,  as  a  branch  of  general  edu- 
cation, says:  "Few  persons  could  learn' arithmetic  by  simply  attending 
lectures,  or  by  reading ;  these  important  means  of  deriving  instruction  require 
to  be  followed  up  by  the  practice  of  exercises  on  the  part  of  the  student. 
Fewer  still  could  become  proficient  in  this  branch  of  useful  knowledge, 
if  not  only  should  the  use  of  exercises  be  denied,  but  the  various  opera- 
tions of  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division  be  presented 
indiscriminately  to  the  mind,  and  not,  as  is  the  invariable  practice,  treated 
separately.  Strange,  however,  as  it  may  appear,  the  method  of  teaching 
the  language  of  Chemistry,  which  is  certainly  not  less  difficult  to  acquire, 
has  been  hitherto  characterized  by  the  defects  just  enumerated.  Yet, 
without  a  knowledge  of  this  important  part  of  Chemistry,  no  real  progress 
can  be  made  in  the  science."  He  says,  further,  that  by  the  new  method 
he  found  the  elements  of  Chemistry  "  capable  of  being  taught  even  to  boys 
of  ten  or  twelve  with  as  much  success  as  the  ordinary  subjects  of  educa- 
tion." 

The  "PROBLEMS"  may  be  successfully  solved  by  the  aid  of  the  princi- 
ples taught  in  most  of  the  Text-books  used  in  American  Colleges.  Among 
these  may  be  mentioned  the  elementary  works  of  Silliman,  Johnston, 
Youmans,  Draper,  Fownes,  Eliot  and  Storer,  Graham,  Turner,  Taylor 
and  Brande,  Miller,  Abel  and  Bloxani,  Kane,  Regnault,  Stockhardt, 
Wells,  etc.,  etc. 

The  work  is  intended  for  the  use  of  beginners  only,  and  to  aid  them, 
in  connection  with  the  Class-book,  and  the  lectures  and  experimental 
demonstrations  of  the  teacher,  to  master  the  first  principles  of  Chemistry, 
by  a  method  equivalent  to  that  by  which  the  principles  of  arithmetic  and 
algebra  are  acquired,  as  prerequisites  to  the  study  of  the  higher  branches 
of  mathematics. 

J.  G.  N. 

LABORATORY  or  THE  STATE  UNIVERSITY, 
COLUMBIA,  MISSOURI,  Nov.,  1867. 


or  THE 
UNIVERSITY 

or 


EXPERIMENTAL    EXERCISES 

AND 

PROBLEMS. 


1. — Fill  a  small  balloon  of  gold-beater's  akin,  or  collodion,  with  hydrogen 
gas.  The  balloon  will  rise  to  the  ceiling  of  the  room. — Explain  the  phe- 
nomenon; and  state  the  weight  of  hydrogen  as  compared  with  that  of 
other  bodies. 

2. — Prepare  some  carbonic  acid  gas,  by  placing  in  a  bottle,  furnished 
with  a  delivery  tube,  some  fragments  of 'marble,  or  chalk,  and  pouring 
upon  them,  by  means  of  a  funnel  tube,  equal  parts  of  hydrochloric  acid 
and  water.  The  delivery  tube  in  this  experiment  should  dip  into  a  dry 
glass  vessel,  and  reach  to  the  bottom.  As  soon  as  the  vessel  is  filled  with 
the  gas.  which  is  ascertained  by  a  candle  being  extinguished  when  intro- 
duced just  below  the  edge  of  the  vessel,  pour  the  gas,  as  you  would  a 
liquid,  into  another  vessel  of  the  same  size  and  shape.  Prove  that  the  gas 
has  been  really  transferred  from  the  one  vessel  to  the  other,  by  intro- 
ducing a  lighted  candle,  first  into  the  vessel  originally  containing  it  (in 
which  the  candle  ought  now  to  burn),  and  then  into  the  one  into  which  it 
was  poured,  and  in  which  the  candle  ought  now  to  be  extinguished. — 
What  does  this  experiment  teach? 

3. — Fill  a  wide  and  deep  glass  jar  half  full  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  the 
upper  half  being  filled  with  atmospheric  air.  Fill  a  collodion  balloon 
with  a  mixture  of  hydrogen  and  air  in  such  exact  proportions  that  the 
balloon  will  just  sink  in  air.  When  so  prepared,  let  the  balloon  sink  into 
the  jar;  and  as  soon  as  it  reaches  the  uppermost  layer  of  carbonic  acid 
it  will  rebound  as  if  it  had  touched  a  solid  body.  Finally,  it  will  float 
quietly  upon  the  carbonic  acid. — What  does  this  experiment  illustrate  ? 

4. — Place  a  few  fragments  of  sulphur  in  a  Florence  flask,  and  then 
heat  the  flask  by  means  of  a  gas  or  spirit  lamp.  The  sulphur  will  become 
liquid;  and,  if  the  heat  be  long  continued,  it  will  finally  be  converted  into 
vapor.  If  the  vapor  be  received  into  another  flask,  which  is  kept  cool,  it 
will  be  reconverted  into  the  solid  state. — What  is  proved  by  this  experi- 
ment? 

5. — Perform  a  similar  experiment  with  small  pieces  of  iodine,  introduced 
into  a  large  flask ;  and  then  heat  the  flask  by  means  of  a  spirit  lamp. 
Notice  the  color  of  the  vapor. 

6. — Fill  very  nearly  a  small  glass  retort  with  water,  and  then  introduce 
a  little  sulphuric  ether.  The  latter  liquid  will  swim  above  the  water  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  retort.  Invert  the  beak  of  the  retort  in  a  vessel 

(5) 


6  EXPERIMENTAL   EXERCISES   AND   PROBLEMS. 

of  water.  Then  apply  a  gentle  heat  to  that  part  of  the  retort  containing 
the  ether.  The  heat  will  convert  the  liquid  ether  into  vapor,  and  more 
or  less  of  the  water  will  be  expelled  from  the  retort.  On  removing  the 
heat  and  allowing  the  glass  to  cool,  the  water  will  flow  back  into  the 
retort. — Explain  the  phenomena. 

7. — Half  fill  a  retort  with  water,  place  it  upon  a  retort-stand,  and 
insert  the  beak  in  a  flask.  Keep  the  flask  cool  by  means  of  a  wet  cloth 
or  ice.  Heat  that  part  of  the  retort  containing  the  water  by  means  of  a 
spirit  lamp. — What  will  take  place  ?  and  what  is  the  explanation  of  the 
phenomena  ? 

EXERCISES   ON   THE   COMBINATION   OF   TWO   ELEMENTS. 

8. — Place  a  piece  of  phosphorus,  about  half  the  size  of  a  pea,  in  the 
deflagrating  spoon  (having  previously  dried  the  P.  by  pressing  it  gently 
between  folds  of  blotting  paper),  and  hold  the  spoon  in  the  flame  of  a 
spirit  lamp  until  the  phosphorus  takes  fire.  Then  introduce  it  into  a  jar 
filled  with  oxygen  gas. — What  will  take  place? 

9. — Dry  a  piece  of  phosphorus  similar  in  size,  and  in  the  same  way,  as 
directed  in  Expt.  8.  Cut  it  into  small  fragments,  and  introduce  them 
unignited,  by  means  of  the  spoon,  into  a  glass  jar  filled  with  chlorine. — 
What  will  take  place? 

10. — Place  a  few  fragments  of  phosphorus  (dried)  upon  a  plate,  and 
throw  upon  them  a  small  quantity  of  iodine. — Describe  the  phenomena. 

11. — Place  a  piece  of  roll  sulphur,  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  in  the  bowl 
of  the  spoon,  hold  the  bowl  in  the  flame  of  a  lamp  or  candle  until  the 
sulphur  takes  fire,  and  then  introduce  it  into  a  wide-mouthed  bottle  or  jar 
filled  with  oxygen  gas. — What  will  take  place? 

12. — Introduce,  by  means  of  the  spoon,  a  piece  of  red-hot  charcoal  into 
a  jar  filled  with  oxygen  gas. — Describe  the  phenomena. 

13. — Coil  a  thin  iron  or  steel  wire  around  a  stick,  so  as  to  bring  it  into 
a  cork-screw  shape,  and  then  draw  it  off  Tip  one  end  of  the  wire  with 
sulphur,  by  immersing  it  in  melted  brimstone,  the  other  end  being  fixed 
into  a  cork  which  fits  the  mouth  of  the  gas  jar.  The  sulphur  having  been 
ignited,  the  spiral  wire  must  be  immediately  inserted  into  a  jar  filled  with 
oxygen  gas,  and  the  cork  closely  pressed  into  the  mouth  of  the  jar. — 
Describe  the  phenomena. 

14. — Put  a  little  powdered  antimony  into  a  small  muslin  bag,  and  shake 
the  bag  over  the  open  mouth  of  a  jar  filled  with  chlorine,  in  such  a  manner 
Jiat  the  small  particles  of  the  metal  coming  through  the  muslin  may  fall 
into  the  jar. — What  will  take  place? 

The  Expt.  may  be  varied  by  substituting  powdered  metallic  arsenic  for 
the  antimony.  In  both  cases  the  experimenter  must  be  very  careful  not 
to  inhale  any  of  the  chlorine  gas  or  the  vapors  formed. 

THE    CONDITIONS    NECESSARY    FOR    COMBINATION. 

15. — Introduce  a  piece  of  dry  phosphorus  into  ajar  of  oxygen ;  notice 
the  result,  and  then  repeat  Expt.  8. — Explain  the  cause  of  the  difference 
in  the  phenomena. 

16. — Dissolve  some  nitrate  of  lead  in  water,  and  also  some  iodide  of 
potassium  in  water.  Add  a  part  of  the  solution  of  iodide  of  potassium  to 
the  lead  solution. — Explain  the  reactions. 


IN    ELEMENTARY    CHEMISTRY.  7 

17. — Dissolve  some  corrosive  sublimate  (chloride  of  mercury)  in  water. 
Add  to  this  solution  the  remainder  of  the  iodine  solution. — Explain  the 
reactions. 

18 — Dissolve  some  sulphate  of  iron  in  water,  and  add  to  the  solution 
some  sulphide  of  ammonium. — Explain  the  results. 

19. — Dissolve  some  sulphate  of  zinc  in  water,  and  add  to  the  solution 
some  sulphide  of  ammonium. — Explain  the  reactions. 

CHANGE    OF   FORM. 

20. — Place  some  fragments  of  marble  or  chalk  in  a  deep  glass  vessel, 
add  water  enough  to  cover  them  to  the  depth  of  half  an  inch  or  an  inch, 
and  then  add  some  hydrochloric  acid.  Effervescence  will  ensue  on  the 
addition  of  the  acid. — Explain  the  phenomenon. 

21. — Take  two  precipitating  vessels  of  equal  size  (tumblers  will  do), 
moisten  the  sides  of  one  with  a  few  drops  of  aqua  ammonia,  and  the  sides 
of  the  other  with  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid.  (Ammonia  and  hydro- 
chloric acid  are  gaseous  bodies,  and  they  escape  from  their  aqueous  solu- 
tions when  exposed  to  the  air.  The  atmosphere  of  the  jar  becomes,  there- 
fore, filled  with  these  gases.)  Then  bring  the  mouths  or  openings  of  the 
two  vessels  together. — What  will  take  place  ?  and  what  will  be  formed  ? 

UNION    OF    ELEMENTS. 

22. — Introduce  into  a  jar  filled  with  nitrogen  gas  a  small  piece  of  ignited 
phosphorus,  by  means  of  the  deflagrating  spoon. — What  will  take  place  ? 
Explain  the  phenomenon. 

23  — Introduce  into  a  jar  filled  with  nitrogen  gas  a  fragment  of  ignited 
sulphur,  by  means  of  the  deflagrating  spoon. — What  will  be  the  result? 
and  why? 

24. — Introduce  a  piece  of  dry  phosphorus  into  ajar  of  oxygen  by  means 
of  the  spoon.  — What  will  take  place  ? 

Then  introduce  a  piece  of  ignited  phosphorus  into  the  same  jar. — What 
will  be  the  result  ?  and  why  ? 

25. — Introduce  a  piece  of  unignited  phosphorus  into  a  jar  filled  with 
chlorine  gas,  (as  directed  in  Expt.  9). — What  do  these  experiments  teach 
in  regard  to  combination  ? 

26. — Place  in  a  beaker,  or  other  convenient  glass  vessel,  a  piece  of 
phosphorus,  and  half  fill  the  vessel  with  water.  Fill  a  bladder,  or  India 
rubber  bftg,  which  is  fitted  with  a  stop-cock  and  bent  delivery  tube,  with 
oxygen,  and  direct  a  stream  of  the  gas  upon  the  phosphorus.  When  the 
two  elements  come  in  contact,  no  reaction  will  take  place.  Then  increase 
the  temperature  of  the  water  10°  F.,  and  again  direct  a  stream  of  oxygen 
upon  the  phosphorus.  Continue  to  increase  the  temperature  of  the  water 
10°  F.,  after  each  occasion  that  the  oxygen  has  been  directed  upon  the 
phosphorus,  until  the  phosphorus  bursts  into  flame. — At  about  what  tem- 
perature will  this  take  place?  and  what  principle  does  this  experiment 
illustrate  ? 

27. — Form  a  small  metallic  spiral  by  twisting  a  piece  of  copper  wire 
around  a  pencil.  Then  place  it  cold  over  the  flame  of  a  wax  taper. — What 
will  take  place  ?  Then  heat  the  spiral  to  redness,  in  the  flame  of  a  spirit- 
lamp,  and  place  it  over  the  flame  of  the  taper. — What  will  be  the  result  ? 
and  why? 


8  EXPERIMENTAL   EXERCISES   AND   PROBLEMS 

28. — Lay  a  piece  of  camphor  on  some  wire  gauze,  and  kindle  it.  The 
camphor  will  burn  on  the  surface  with  a  smoky  flame,  and  a  portion  of 
the  melted  mass  will  pass  through  the  gauze  to  the  under  side,  but  will 
not  burn. — Why  not? 

29. — Place  a  piece  of  wire  gauze  over  a  jet  from  which  an  inflammable 
gas  (such  as  coal  gas)  is  issuing;  apply  a  light  to  the  upper  surface  of 
the  gauze,  and  the  gas  will  instantly  take  fire.  Raise  the  gauze  an  inch 
or  two  above  the  jet  from  which  the  gas  is  issuing;  and,  while  the  gas 
above  the  wire  will  continue  to  burn,  that  below  will  remain  unignited. — 
Explain  the  experiment. 

30. — What  elements  do  the  following  symbols  stand  for: — 
Fe— Au— Br— Mn— Cd  ? 

31. — Give  the  symbols  for  the  following  elements: — 

Magnesium — Lead— Chlorine  —  Copper  —  Platinum  —  Potassium  —  So- 
dium. 

32. — How  are  the  Metals  distinguished  from  the  Metalloids? 

33. — Name  the  elements  which  are  gaseous,  and  those  which  are  fluid, 
at  the  common  temperature. 

34. — Of  what  elements  are  the  following  compounds  composed : — • 
H  O— Pb  S— Na  Cl— Ca  F— Fe  0— K  Br— Ca  0— Zn  1— Co  0  ? 

35. — What  is  "weight? 

36. — In  what  respect  does  the  attraction  of  Gravitation  differ  from  the 
attraction  of  Cohesion  and  Chemical  Attraction  ? 

37. — What  is  the  difference  between  a  mere  mixture  of  substances  and 
a  chemical  compound? 

38. — What  is  the  burning  of  phosphorus,  of  carbon,  of  sulphur,  of 
hydrogen,  in  the  air,  due  to? 

39. — Repeat  Expt.  No.  13;  and  describe  the  reactions  which  take 
place. 

40. — Make  the  same  Expt.  (No.  39),  with  the  exception,  that  instead 
of  plun^in«;  the  wire  into  oxygen  gas  after  the  sulphur  is  ignited,  allow  it 
to  remain  in  the  air. — Explain  the  result. 

RESULTS    OF    COMBUSTION. 

41. — Introduce  a  piece  of  ignited  phosphorus  into  a  jar  of  oxygen,  as 
in  Expt.  8. — What  will  be  formed. 

42. — Introduce  a  piece  of  unignited  phosphorus  into  a  jar  of  chlorine, 
in  the  way  described  in  Expt.  9. — What  will  be  formed? 

43. — Add  some  phosphorus  and  iodine  together,  in  the  way  described 
in  Expt.  10.— What  will  be  formed? 

44. — Introduce  a  piece  of  ignited  phosphorus  into  a  jar  of  nitrogen,  as 
described  in  Expt.  22.— What  will  be  formed? 

45. — Introduce  some  burning  sulphur  into  ajar  of  oxygen,  as  described 
in  Expt.  11. — What  will  be  formed"? 

46. — Take  a  fragment  of  sulphur  and  melt  it  in  the  cup  of  the  spoon ; 
as  soon  as  it  is  liquid,  and  before  it  takes  lire,  introduce  it  into  a  bottle 
filled  with  chlorine  gas.  What  will  be  the  result?  and  what  will  bo 
formed  ? 


IN    ELEMENTARY   CHEMISTRY.  9 

47. — Introduce  some  burning  sulphur  into  a  jar  of  nitrogen,  in  the 
way  described  in  Expt.  23.— What  will  be  the  result? 

48. — Burn  some  iron  wire  in  a  jar  of  oxygen,  in  the  way  directed  in 
Expt.  13.— What  will  be  formed? 

49. — Make  a  small  ball  of  turnings  of  zinc,  and  inclose  in  it  a  small 
fragment  of  phosphorus.  Place  the  ball  in  the  cup  of  the  spoon,  and  set 
fire  to  the  phosphorus  by  means  of  a  lamp.  Then  introduce  the  spoon  as 
quickly  as  possible  into  a  jar  of  oxygen. — Describe  the  phenomena,  and 
state  the  result. 

50. — Place  a  few  small  fragments  of  antimony  in  the  cup  of  the  spoon, 
and  then  heat  them  in  the  flame  of  a  lamp  until  they  take  fire.  Intro- 
duce the  burning  metal  immediately  into  a  jar  of  oxygen. — What  will  be 
formed  ? 

51. — Introduce  some  powdered  antimony  into  a  jar  of  chlorine,  in  the 
way  described  in  Expt.  14. — What  will  be  formed  ? 

52. — Introduce  some  ignited  charcoal  into  a  jar  of  oxygen,  in  the  way 
described  in  Expt.  12. — What  will  be  formed? 

53. — Generate  some  hydrogen  gas  in  a  common  round  bottle,  by  the 
action  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid  on  granulated  zinc.  Fit  a  narrow  glass 
tube  into  a  perforated  cork,  the  latter  fitting  air-tight  into  the  neck  of  the 
bottle.  The  tube  should  be  made  of  hard  infusible  glass,  and  the  end 
which  is  not  fixed  into  the  cork  should  be  drawn  out  into  a  fine  open 
point.  As  soon  as  the  operator  considers  that  all  the  common  air  has 
been  expelled  from  the  bottle,  but  not  before,  (on  account  of  the  violent 
explosion  which  occurs  when  hydrogen,  mixed  with  common  air,  is  in- 
flamed,) apply  a  light  to  the  gas  issuing  from  the  orifice  of  the  tube. — 
What  causes  the  hydrogen  to  burn?  and  what  is  formed? 

54. — Fill  a  soda-water  bottle  with  equal  volumes  of  chlorine  and  hy- 
drogen, and  inflame  the  mixture  by  applying  a  lighted  match  to  the 
mouth  of  the  bottle.  An  explosion  will  ensue. — What  will  be  formed? 
and  what  are  its  properties? 

55. — Describe  the  oxyhydrogen  lime  light,  and  state  the  part  which  the 
lime  plays  in  the  illumination. 

56. — Introduce  a  cold  body,  such  as  a  plate  of  metal  or  a  piece  of 
glass,  or  even  a  piece  of  card,  into  a  luminous  flame;  it  will  speedily 
become  blackened  from  the  deposition  of  carbon.  Intercept  the  flame, 
by  means  of  the  card,  far  down,  near  the  wick;  then  higher  up,  about 
the  middle  of  the  flame;  and  then  at  the  top.  The  deposit  of  carbon 
near  the  wick  will  be  very  slight;  it  will  be  considerable  in  the  middle 
of  the  flame ;  and  only  very  slight  at  the  top. — Explain  the  phenomena. 

57. — Place  a  piece  of  sulphur  in  a  long  test  tube,  or  flask  of  hard  glass. 
Heat  the  vessel,  by  means  of  a  lamp,  until  the  sulphur  melts,  and  the 
vessel  has  become  filled  with  its  vapor.  Introduce  a  narrow  strip  of  tin1- 
foil  into  the  sulphur  atmosphere,  when  the  metal  will  instantly  inflame. — 
What  will  be  formed  ? 

This  Expt.  may  be  varied  by  employing,  instead  of  the  tin-foil,  a  nar- 
row strip  of  sheet  lead ;  or,  very  thin  iron  and  copper  wires  twisted  into 
a  coil,  and  introducing  them  into  an  atmosphere  of  sulphur. — What 
would  be  formed  in  the  respective  circumstances? 

58. — What  elements  do  the  following  symbols  stand  for: — Zn--Ni — 
Na— Ca-Ba— Sb-Hg— Sn  ? 


10         EXPERIMENTAL  EXERCISES  AND  PROBLEMS 

59. — Give  the  symbols  for  the  following  elements : — Cadmium,  Chlo- 
rine, Calcium,  Carbon,  Chromium,  Copper,  Cobalt,  Caesium. 

60. — Of  what  elements  are  the  following  compounds  composed: — 
Ag  Cl— Ca  F— Fb  Br— Hg  O— B  N— Cu  Cl  ? 

61. — Name  some  of  the  terms  employed  in  ordinary  language  to  ex- 
press the  combination  of  substances. 

62. — What  conditions  are  necessary  for  light  to  be  produced  in  chem- 
ical combination  ? 

63. — Name  some  of  the  conditions  necessary  for  the  combination  of 
phosphorus  and  oxygen;  of  phosphorus  and  chlorine;  and  the  phenomena 
which  accompany  the  combinations,  and  the  properties  of  the  compounds 
produced. 

64. — State  the  effects  which  intense  heat  has  upon  solid  and  gaseous 
bodies,  and  give  examples. 

65. — Do  the  light  and  heat  emitted  by  burning  bodies  bear  any  pro- 
portion to  each  other  ?  Confirm  the  opinion  expressed  by  examples. 

66. — Why  do  substances  burn  more  vividly  in  pure  oxygen  than  they 
do  in  atmospheric  air  ? 

67. — Upon  what  facts  depends  the  possibility  of  artificial  illumina- 
tion? 

68. — What  is  necessary  for  the  production  of  flame  ? 

69. — Name  some  of  the  conditions  necessary  for  the  combination  of 
antimony  and  chlorine ;  and  of  sulphur  and  oxygen ;  and  the  phenomena 
which  accompany  the  combinations,  and  the  properties  of  the  compounds 
produced. 

70. — Of  what  elements  are  all  materials  employed  for  illumination  com- 
posed, and  what  changes  do  they  undergo  when  burned  in  the  air  ? 

71. — Explain  the  flame  of  a  candle. 


COMBINATION     OF  A   COMPOUND   WITH    AN    ADDITIONAL    QUANTITY    OF    ONE   OF 

ITS    ELEMENTS. 

72. — Place  at  the  bottom  of  a  long  test-tube  some  crystals  of  oxalic 
acid ;  add  to  them  some  strong  sulphuric  acid,  and  then  warm  the  tube 
in  the  flame  of  a  lamp.  As  soon  as  effervescence  commences,  apply  a 
piece  of  lighted  paper,  or  a  match,  to  the  mouth  of  the  tube,  until  the 
evolved  gas  takes  tire ;  it  burns  with  a  blue  flame. — What  gas  is  it  ? 
and  what  compound  is  formed  by  its  burning  ? 

73. — Put  into  a  Woulfe-bottle  a  few  small  pieces  of  metallic  copper 
(copper  turnings),  and  add  to  the  metal,  by  means  of  a  funnel  tube, 
equal  parts  of  nitric  acid  and  water.  Effervescence,  without  the  appli- 
cation of  heat,  will  instantly  ensue.  On  the  first  evolution  of  the  gas 
the  bottle  will  be  filled  with  reddish  fumes.  When  they  have  nearly 
passed  away,  the  gas  may  be  collected  in  the  usual  way,  by  dipping 
the  exit  tube  under  the  mouth  of  a  jar  filled  with  water,  and  standing 
inverted  on  the  shelf  of  a  pneumatic  trough. — Give  the  name  of  this 
gas,  and  its  composition. 

74. — Pass,  rapidly,  into  a  jar  half  full  of  the  gas  formed  by  Expt.  73 
(the  vessel  containing  it  being  inverted  on  the  shelf  of  the  pneumatic 
cistern),  a  quantity  of  oxygen.  As  soon  as  the  two  gases  are  brought 


IN   ELEMENTARY   CHEMISTRY.  11 

together,  the  jar  will  be  instantly  filled  with  an  orange-red  gas,  which 
is  very  soluble  in  water;  this  liquid  will,  therefore,  rapidly  ascend  in 
the  vessel  by  dissolving  the  new-formed  gas.  (This  experiment  furnishes 
a  striking  example  of  the  difference  between  a  mere  mixture  of  sub- 
stances and  a  chemical  compound.) — What  is  the  orange-red  gas? 
Explain  the  rationale  of  its  formation. 

Vary  this  Expt.  by  filling  a  jar  with  the  gas  formed  by  Expt.  73 ; 
remove  it  from  the  pneumatic  cistern,  and  expose  it,  with  its  mouth 
upward,  to  the  air,  when  the  orange-red  fumes  will  be  formed,  as  in  the 
first  case. — Give  the  rationale. 


EVERY   COMPOUND    SUBSTANCE    IS    EITHER  AN    ACID,  A  BASE,  A  SALT,  OR  AN  IN- 
DIFFERENT BODY. 

75. — Fill  three  wine-glasses,  or  other  convenient  vessels,  with  water. 
To  one,  add  a  few  drops  of  any  acid,  as  hydrochloric ;  to  the  second  a 
few  drops  of  any  base,  as  soda  or  potash ;  to  the  third,  add  nothing, 
and  the  water  will  represent  an  indifferent  body. — Explain  the  means 
by  which  it  can  be  ascertained  which  glass  contains  the  acid,  which 
the  base,  and  which  the  neutral  or  indifferent  body. 

76. — Add  a  little  water  to  some  caustic  (quick)  lime.  The  two  sub- 
stances will  combine  and  form  a  solid  compound. — Name  the  compound, 
and  state  the  phenomena  attending:  its  formation. 

77.— Define  the  terms,  Acid,  Alkali,  Salt,  Base,  Neutral,  Salt-Radical, 
Compound,  and  Mixture. 

78. — Pass  a  stream  of  carbonic  acid  gas  (prepared  in  the  way  de- 
scribed in  Expt.  2)  through  a  clear  solution  of  lime  (lime-water). — 
What  will  take  place  ?  Give  the  rationale. 

79. —  Can  more  compounds  than  one  be  formed  out  of  the  same  ele- 
ments ? 

80. — Give  some  proof  that  atmospheric  air  is  a  mixture,  and  not  a  chem- 
ical compound. 

81. — Describe  the  properties  and  action  of  an  acid. 

82. — What  produces  the  blue  flame  which  is  frequently  seen  on  the 
surface  of  coal  fires  ? 

83. — Give  examples  to  prove  that  temperature  influences  combination. 

84. — Why  will  not  carbonic  acid  burn  in  the  air? 

85. — Why  will  not  water  burn  in  the  air  ? 

SPECIFIC   GRAVITY. 

86. — What  is  meant  by  specific  weight?  —  Describe  the  "1000  grains 
bottle,"  and  the  principle  involved  in  its  use. 

87. — Tf  a  bottle  capable  of  holding  360  grains  of  distilled  water,  holds 
320  grains  of  some  other  liquid,  what  is  the  sp.  gr.  of  that  liquid  ? 

88. — Tf  a  bottle  capable  of  holding  400  grains  of  distilled  water,  holda 
470  grains  of  some  other  liquid,  what  is  the  sp.  gr.  of  that  liquid  ? 

89. — If  a  bottle  capable  of  holding  700  grains  of  distilled  water,  holds 
600  grains  of  some  other  liquid,  what  is  the  sp.  gr.  of  that  liquid  ? 


12  EXPERIMENTAL   EXERCISES   AND   PROBLEMS 

90. — Required  the  weight  in  pounds  of  a  gallon  of  linseed  oil,  its  sp. 
gr.  being  0.953. 

(NOTE.— An  imperial  gallon  of  water  weighs  70,000  grains,  or  10  Ibs.) 

91. — .Required  the  weight  in  pounds  of  a  gallon  of  turpentine,  its  sp. 
gr.  being  0.792. 

92 — Required  the  weight  of  a  gallon  of  the  water  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
its  sp  gr.  being  1.172. 

93. — Required  the  weight  of  a  gallon  of  vinegar,  its  sp.  gr.  being 
J.  ,  Uoo. 

94. — Required  the  weight  of  a  cubic  inch  of  mercury,  the  sp.  gr.  of 
which  is  13.59. 

(NOTE. — A  cubic  inch  of  water  weighs  252.458  grains.) 

95. — If  100  grains  of  a  solid  be  introduced  into  a  bottle  holding  500 
grains  of  water,  and  if  after  the  introduction  of  the  solid  the  bottle 
weighs  560  grains,  what  is  the  sp.  gr.  of  the  solid  ? 

96. — If  160  grains  of  a  solid  be  introduced  into  a  bottle  holding  400 
grains  of  water,  and  if  after  the  introduction  the  bottle  weighs  500  grains, 
what  is  the  sp.  gr.  of  the  solid  ? 

97. — If  300  grains  of  a  solid  be  introduced  into  a  bottle  holding  700 
grains  of  water,  and  if  after  the  introduction  the  bottle  weighs  850 
grains,  what  is  the  sp.  gr.  of  the  solid  ? 

98. — If  200  grains  of  a  solid  be  introduced  into  a  bottle  holding  400 
grains  of  alcohol,  the  sp.  gr.  of  which  is  0.870,  and  the  bottle  weighs, 
after  the  solid  is  introduced,  570  grains,  what  is  the  sp.  gr.  of  the  solid, 
taking  water  as  the  standard  of  comparison. 

99. — If  300  grains  of  a  solid  be  introduced  into  a  bottle  holding  700 
grains  of  turpentine,  the  sp.  gr.  of  which  is  0.790,  and  the  bottle  weighs, 
after  the  introduction  of  the  £olid,  870  grains,  what  is  the  sp.  gr.  of  the 
solid,  taking  water  as  the  standard  of  comparison  ? 

100. — Required  the  sp.  gr.  of  a  solid  which  weighs  36  grains  in  air 
and  26  grains  in  water. — Explain  the  law  upon  which  the  calculation 
is  based. 

101. — A  solid,  the  weight  of  which  in  air  is  60  grains,  weighs  40 
grains  in  water  and  30  grains  in  sulphuric  acid ;  required  the  sp.  gr.  of 
the  acid. 

102. — A  piece  of  metal,  weighing  36  pounds  in  the  air  and  32  pounds  in 
water,  is  attached  to  a  piece  of  wood  the  weight  of  which  in  air  is  30 
pounds;  the  weight  of  the  combined  solids  in  water  is  12  pounds.  Re- 
quired the  sp.  gr.  of  the  wood. 

103. — What  will  be  the  weight  of  a  block  of  limestone  containing 
12  cubic  feet;  one  cubic  foot  of  water  weighing  62.5  pounds,  and  the 
«p.  gr.  of  the  stone  being  2.64? 

104. — How  many  cubic  feet  are  there  in  a  block  of  coal  weighing  1 
cwt,,  its  sp.  gr.  being  1.232? 

105. — The  sp.  gr.  of  bar  iron  is  7.788;  required  the  weight  of  a  cubic 
foot. 

(NOTE. — The  volume  of  a  gallon  of  water  is  277.274  cubic  inches.) 

106. — The  sp.  gr.  of  flint  glass  is  3.329,  required  the  weight  of  a  cubic 
foot. 


IN    ELEMENTARY   CHEMISTRY.  13 

107. — The  sp.  gr.  of  oak  wood  is  0.845;  required  the  weight  of  a  cubic 
foot. 

108. — The  sp.  gr.  of  cork  is  0.240;  required  the  weight  of  a  cubic 
foot. 

109. — The  sp.  gr.  of  ice  is  0.930;  required  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot 

110. — The  sp.  gr.  of  silver  is  10.474;  required  the  weight  of  a  cubic 
inch. 

111. — A  solid  weighs  49  grains  in  air,  and  42  grains  in  water;  re- 
quired the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  the  substance. 

112. — Into  how  many  classes  are  the  properties  of  matter  divided? 

113. — Name  the  physical  properties  of  oxygen,  chlorine,  carbon,  and 
mercury. 

114. — Name  the  chemical  properties  of  oxygen,  carbon  and  chlorine. 

115. — Enumerate  the  essential  properties  of  matter,  and  the  non-es- 
sential properties  of  matter. 

116. — How  many  kinds  of  weight  are  there?  and,  what  is  meant  by 
absolute  weight  ? 

117. — What  is  meant  by  specific  gravity?  and,  by  atomic  weight  ? 

118. — Add  some  nitric  acid  to  copper  filings;  the  copper  will  disap- 
pear, and  a  beautiful  blue  solution  will  be  formed. — What  is  it  ?  Does 
the  acid  combine  with  the  metal  ? 

119. — Add  some  sulphuric  acid  to  iron  filings. — What  will  take  place, 
and  what  will  be  formed  ? 

120. — Add  some  sulphuric  acid  to  some  ammonia,  in  such  proportion 
that  the  solution,  after  the  addition,  has  no  action  upon  either  blue  or 
red  litmus  papers. — What  does  the  experiment  prove  ? 

121. — Mix  some  chloride  of  mercury  (corrosive  sublimate)  with  some 
iodide  of  potassium.  The  mixture  will  be  colorless.  Then  dissolve  the 
mixture  in  water. — What  will  take  place  ?  and  why  ? 

122. — Mix  some  nitrate  of  lead  with  some  iodide  of  potassium.  The 
mixture  will  be  colorless.  Then  add  water  to  the  mixture. — What  will 
take  place  ?  Explain  the  phenomena. 

123. — Place  a  piece  of  bright  metallic  iron  in  a  solution  of  nitrate  of 
copper  (a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  the  copper  salt  to  half  a  pint  of 
water). — What  will  take  place  ?  and  what  will  be  formed  ? 

(Name  the  first  of  the  four  great  laws  of  chemical  union,  and  illus- 
trate it  by  solving  the  following  problems:) 

124. — How  much  water  would  be  produced  from  28  Ibs.  of  oxygen  and 
5  Ibs.  of  hydrogen,  and  would  either  of  the  elements  be  in  excess  ? 

125. — How  much  hydrochloric  acid  would  be  produced  from  5  Ibs.  of 
hydrogen  and  178  Ibs.  of  chlorine,  and  would  either  of  the  elements  be  in 
excess  ? 

126. — How  much  hydriodic  acid  would  be  produced  from  7  Ibs.  of 
hydrogen  and  1,000  Ibs.  of  iodine,  and  would  either  of  the  elements  be  in 
excess  ? 

127. — How  much  hydrosulphuric  acid  would  be  produced  from  6  Ibs. 
of  hydrogen  and  80  Ibs.  of  sulphur,  and  would  either  of  the  elements  be 
in  excf  ss  ? 


14  EXPERIMENTAL   EXERCISES   AND   PROBLEMS 

128. — How  much  zinc  will  combine  with  8  parts  of  oxygen?  What 
compound  will  be  formed,  and  how  many  parts  ? 

129. — How  much  hydrogen  will  combine  with  16  parts  of  oxygen,  and 
how  many  parts  of  water  will  be  formed  ? 

130. — How  many  parts  of  potassium  will  combine  with  35.5  of  chlo- 
rine ?  What  compound  will  be  formed,  and  how  many  parts  ? 

131. — How  many  parts  of  lead  will  combine  with  48  of  oxygen?  What 
compound  will  be  formed,  and  how  many  parts? 

132. — How  many  parts  of  lead  will  combine  with  48  of  sulphur.  What 
compound  will  be  formed,  and  how  many  parts? 

133. — In  9  parts  of  the  compound  H  O,  what  quantity  of  hydrogen  is 
there,  and  what  quantity  of  K  will  replace  it  ? 

134. — In  28  parts  of  the  compound  Ca  0,  what  quantity  of  oxygen  is 
there,  and  what  quantity  of  sulphur  will  replace  it  ? 

135. — In  20  parts  of  the  compound  Mg  0,  what  quantity  of  oxygen  is 
there,  and  what  quantity  of  chlorine  will  replace  it  ? 

136. — Oxygen  and  potassium  unite,  in  the  proportion  of  8  of  the  former 
element  to  39  of  the  latter,  to  form  47  parts  of  potassa.  What  quantity 
of  oxygen  is  contained  in  100  parts  of  potassa? 

137. — Bromine  and  hydrogen  unite,  in  the  proportion  of  80  of  the  for- 
mer element  to  1  of  the  latter,  to  form  81  parts  of  hydrobromic  acid. 
How  much  bromine  is  contained  in  150  parts  of  hydrobromic  acid? 

138. — Every  100  parts  of  a  compound  of  sulphur  and  oxygen  (sulphu- 
rous acid),  are  composed  of  50  parts  of  sulphur  and  50  parts  of  oxygen. 
How  much1  oxygen  is  united  with  16  of  sulphur,  and  how  many  atoms  of 
oxygen  is  it  equal  to? 

139. — Every  100  parts  of  a  compound  of  sulphur  and  oxygen  (sulphuric 
aoid),  are  composed  of  40  parts  of  sulphur  and  60  parts  of  oxygen.  How 
much  oxygen  is  united  with  16  of  sulphur,  and  how  many  atoms  of  oxygen 
is  it  equal  to  ? 

140. — Every  100  parts  of  a  compound  of  phosphorus  and  oxygen  (phos- 
phorous acid),  are  composed  of  56.36  parts  of  phosphorus  and  43.64  parts 
of  oxygen.  How  much  oxygen  is  united  with  31  of  phosphorus,  and  how 
many  atoms  of  oxygen  is  it  equal  to  ? 

141. — Every  100  parts  of  a  compound  of  phosphorus  and  oxygen  (phosXv*  v 
phoric  acid),  are  composed  of  43.66  parts  of  phosphorus  and  56.44  parts" 
of  oxygen.     How  much  oxygen  is  united  with  31  parts  of  phosphorus,  and 
how  many  parts  of  oxygen  is  it  equal  to  ? 

142. — Every  100  parts  of  calomel  are  composed  of  84.96  parts  of  mer- 
cury and  15.04  parts  of  chlorine;  and  every  100  parts  of  corrosive  subli- 
mate are  composed  of  73.86  parts  of  mercury  and  26.14  parts  of  chlorine. 
What  quantity  of  mercury  is  combined  with  35.5  parts  of  chlorine  in  the 
calomel  and  the  corrosive  sublimate?  and  how  many  atoms  of  mercury  is 
it  equal  to  in  the  two  compounds  ? 

143. — A  compound  of  manganese  and  oxygen  contains  these  elements 
in  the  following  proportions:  27.6  of  manganese  and  12  of  oxygen.  Find 
the  atomic  proportions. 

144. — A  compound  of  manganese  and  oxygen  contains  these  elements 
in  the  following  proportions:  27.6  of  manganese  and  12  of  oxygen.  Find 
the  atomic  proportions. 


IN   ELEMENTARY   CHEMISTRY.  15 

145. — A  compound  of  manganese  and  oxygen  contains  these  elements 
in  the  following  proportions:  27.6  of  manganese  and  10.66  of  oxygen. 
Find  the  atomic  proportions. 

146. — A  compound  of  lead  and  oxygen  contains  these  elements  in  the 
following  proportions:  103.7  of  lead  and  12  of  oxygen.  Find  the  atomic 
proportions. 

147. — A  compound  of  lead  and  oxygen  contains  these  elements  in  the 
following  proportions:  103.7  of  lead  and  10.66  of  oxygen.  Find  the 
atomic  proportions. 

148. — Write  out  as  complete  an  answer  as  you  possibly  can  to  the  fol- 
lowing question :  How  does  chemical  affinity  differ  from  the  attraction  of 
cohesion  ? 

149. — How  many  modes  are  there  of  forming  chemical  compounds? 
Write  out  a  full  and  complete  answer,  with  examples. 

150. — What  elements  do  the  following  symbols  stand   for?    and  how 
many  atoms,  and  how  many  parts  by  weight,  do  the  symbols  signify  ? 
Ba— Si— Pt— As— Cu-Mn— Ag— Au— Cd— Co— Ni— B. 

151. — What  compounds  do  the  following  symbols  stand  for?  and  how 
many  atoms,  and  how  many  parts  by  weight,  do  the  symbols  signify? 
Name  also  the  constituents  of  each  compound. 

Ba  0-Sr  O-  Ca  0-Mg  O— H  0-Co  O  -Ni  O  -Zn  O  -Mn  O  -Ag  O  -4 
Cu  O— Cd  O. 

152. — State  the  number  of  atoms  of  each  element  in  one  atom  of  the 
following  compounds,  and  give  the  combining  proportion  of  each  coin- 
pound  : — 

As  O3— As  O5— Pt  02— Au  03— A12  O3— Mn  02— Pb3  O4. 

153. — Explain  the  meaning  of  the  figures  attached  to  the  following 
symbols  :  — 

2  Ca  O— 3  Na  0—2  C  O2— 5  As  O5. 

154. — Name  the  following  compounds  : — 

Ca  F-Ag  I— K  Br— Na  Cl— Co  S— Ni  Cl. 

155. — Name  the  following  compounds,  and  if  they  are  named  in  two 
wayfi,  give  both  names : — 
;  "Pb  S-Ca  Cl— Ba  P— Ni  N— Fe  C— Fe  Si. 

156. — Name  the  following  compounds;  and  if  any  of  them  are  named 
in  two  ways,  give  both  names : — 

H  S— H  Br— I  Cl— S  Cl. 

157. — Give  the  names  of  the  following  compounds,  attaching  the  proper 
prefixes : — 

Fe2Cl3—  Cu2I-CS2-ICl3-KS5-BaS4-PCl3-PCl5-S2Cl— 

FeS2. 

158. — Dissolve  some  iodide  of  potassium  in  water  (about  a  drachm 
of  the  salt  in  half  a  pint  of  water),  and  add  to  the  solution  a  small 
quantity  of  chlorine  water,  obtained  by  passing  chlorine  gas  through 
water. — Explain  the  reactions. 

159. — Place  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper  (about  a  quarter  of 
an  ounce  of  the  salt  in  half  a  pint  of  water),  a  piece  of  bright  metal- 
lic iron. — Explain  the  reactions  which  take  place. 


16  EXPERIMENTAL   EXERCISES   AND   PROBLEMS 

160. — Throw  a  small  fragment  of  potassium  into  water  contained  in 
a  dish  or  plate. — Explain  the  phenomena;  and  state  the  effect  which 
will  be  produced  on  blue  and  red  litmus  papers  by  the  water. 

161.— Introduce  a  burning  taper  into  a  glass  jar  filled  with  chlorine 
gas. — Explain  the  phenomena  which  take  place. 

162. — Moisten  a  piece  of  blotting  paper  with  spirits  of  turpentine 
(C5  H4)  and  introduce  it  into  ajar  filled  with  chlorine  gas. — Explain  the 
reactions,  and  state  what  compound  is  formed. 

163. — Add  some  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  (1  part  of  concentrated  acid 
to  4  of  water)  to  some  fragments  of  zinc. — Explain  the  reactions,  and 
state  what  will  be  formed. 

164. — Prepare  some  sulphide  of  hydrogen,  by  adding  to  some  fragments 
of  sulphide  of  iron,  placed  in  an  appropriate  apparatus,  dilute  hydrochlo- 
ric acid.  Collect  the  gas  as  it  is  liberated,  in  a  jar  placed  over  water,  in 
the  manner  directed  for  carbonic  acid  gas  in  Expt.  2.  Subsequently 
pass  a  little  chlorine  gas  into  the  jar. — Explain  the  phenomena,  and  state 
what  will  be  formed. 

165. — Prepare  some  nitrous  oxide  gas  (NO — "laughing  gas"),  by  plac- 
ing some  solid  nitrate  of  ammonia  in  a  retort,  and  applying  heat.  The 
nitrate  is  decomposed  by  heat  into  this  gas  and  water.  The  gas  may  be 
collected  in  jars  at  the  pneumatic  trough.  A  proper  regulation  of  the 
heat,  so  as  to  avoid  a  tumultuous  disengagement  of  the  gas,  is  the  only 
precaution  required  in  preparing  this  gas. 

166. — Introduce,  by  means  of  the  deflagrating  spoon,  a  fragment  of 
lighted  phosphorus  into  a  jar  filled  with  nitrous  oxide.  The  gas  will 
be  decomposed,  not  by  the  mere  affinity  of  the  phosphorus  for  the  oxy- 
gen— this  is  insufficient — but  by  the  high  temperature  of  the  burning 
phosphorus  and  the  affinity  spoken  of. — What  will  be  formed? 

167. — Introduce,  by  means  of  the  spoon,  some  burning  sulphur  into 
a  jar  of  nitrous  oxide. —  Explain  the  results,  and  state  what  will  be 
formed  ? 

168. — Add  to  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  a  globule  of  mercury. — 
State  the  result,  and  what  the  solution  now  contains.  Then  dip  a  slip 
>of  clean  bright  copper  into  the  solution.  —  What  will  take  place?  Then 
add  some  nitrate  of  lead  to  the  solution. — What  will  be  the  result? 
Then  place  a  slip  of  clean  zinc  in  the  solution  remaining. — What  will 
take  place,  and  what  will  the  solution  now  contain  ? — What  do  these 
Expts.  teach  with  regard  to  the  affinity  of  oxygen  for  the  metals  ? 

169. — Throw  a  fragment  of  sodium  into  a  plate  of  water. — What  will 
take  place  ?  and  what  will  be  formed  ? 

170. — Repeat  the  Expt.  by  using  warm  instead  of  cold  water. — Explain 
the  difference  in  the  phenomena. 

171. — Add  dilute  sulphuric  acid  (1  part  of  S  O3  to  4  of  water)  to  a  hot 
concentrated  solution  of  biborate  of  soda  (half  an  ounce  of  the  salt  boiled 
with  2  ounces  of  water),  until  the  solution  becomes  sour  to  the  taste. — 
What  reactions  will  take  place,  and  what  substances  will  be  formed  ? 

172. — Add  to  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  lead  (4  drachms  of  the  salt  to  4 
or  5  ounces  of  water)  a  solution  of  caustic  soda. — Explain  the  reactions, 
and  state  what  will  be  formed. 

173. — Add  some  lime-water  to  a  hot  solution  of  carbonate  of  ammonia, 
• — What  will  take  place,  and  what  will  be  formed  ? 


IN    ELEMENTARY    CHEMISTRY.  17 

174. — Add  some  nitric  acid,  diluted  with  twice  its  volume  of  water,  to 
some  fragments  of  marble. — What  will  be  formed?  Perform  this  experi- 
ment in  the  apparatus  described  in  Expt.  2,  and  let  the  exit  tube  dip  into 
an  open  dry  glass  vessel.  The  tube  should  extend  to  the  bottom  of  the 
vessel. 

175. — Fill  two  bottles,  of  equal  size,  one  with  carbonic  acid  gas,  the 
other  with  hydrogen  Fix  into  the  mouth  of  one  of  the  bottles,  after  it  is 
filled,  a  glass  tube,  two  or  three  inches  long,  by  means  of  a  perforated 
cork ;  and,  in  the  same  manner,  fix  the  other  end  of  the  tube  in  the  other 
bottle.  Place  the  apparatus  on  the  table,  by  standing  it  on  the  bottom  of 
the  bottle  containing  the  carbonic  acid,  the  hydrogen  bottle  being  up- 
ward. Let  it  stand  for  two  or  three  hours. — What  will  take  place? 
Explain  the  principle,  and  state  what  will  take  place  on  pouring  lime- 
water  into  the  bottles. 

176. — Close  one  end  of  a  wide  glass  tube,  10  or  12  inches  in  length, 
and  1  or  2  inches  in  width,  with  a  plug  of  plaster  of  Paris  about  half  an 
inch  thick.  This  plug,  when  dry,  is  permeated  with  a  multitude  of  min- 
ute pores,  which  are  pervious  to-  gases.  This  tube  (called  the  diffusion 
tube),  when  the  plug  is  dry,  is  to  be  filled  with  hydrogen,  by  displace- 
ment. To  accomplish  this,  a  plate  of  glass  is  placed  first  of  all  upon  the 
exterior  of  the  plug;  a  tube  connected  with  a  gas-holder,  or  some  vessel 
filled  with  hydrogen,  is  then  introduced  into  the  diffusion  tube  until  it 
almost  touches  the  plug.  Hydrogen  is  by  this  means  conveyed  from  the 
vessel  containing  it  into  the  tube,  and  of  course  it  displaces  the  air  con- 
tained in  the  diffusion  tube.  When  the  tube  is  entirely  and  solely  filled 
with  hydrogen,  close  the  mouth  of  it  with  a  piece  of  glass,  and  then 
transfer  it,  with  its  mouth  downward,  into  a  vessel  filled  with  colored 
water,  subsequently  removing  both  plates  of  glass. — Describe  the  phe- 
nomena which  take  place  under  these  circumstances. 

Vary  this  Expt.  by  filling  the  diffusion  tube  with  atmospheric  air,  and 
surrounding  it  with  an  atmosphere  of  hydrogen. — What  do  these  Expts. 
teach,  in  relation  to  gases  ? 

177. — Prepare  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda  (1  part  of  the  salt  to  10 
of  water),  and  add  to  it  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper. — What  will  take 
place,  and  what  new  substances  will  be  formed?  Show  the  reactions  by 
a  diagram. 

178. — Add  a  solution  of  chromate  of  potash  (1  part  of  the  salt  to  10  of 
water)  to  one  of  nitrate  of  lead. — What  will  be  produced  ?  Explain  the 
rationale  by  means  of  a  diagram. 

179. — Project  a  small  piece  of  phosphide  of  calcium  into  a  plate  of 
water;  this  phosphorus  compound  and  water  mutually  decompose  each 
other. — What  is  formed  ?  Describe  and  explain  the  phenomena  attending 
the  Expt. — (Note:  If  the  phosphide  of  calcium  has  not  been  recently 
prepared,  employ  warm  water.) 

180. — Add  a  solution  of  iodide  of  potassium  to  one  of  nitrate  of  lead. 
What  will  be  formed  ?  Illustrate  the  reactions  by  a  diagram. 

181. — Add  a  solution  of  iodide  of  potassium  to  one  of  chloride  of  mer- 
cury.— What  will  be  formed  ?  Illustrate  the  reactions  by  a  diagram. 

182. — Fill  a  tall-stoppered  glass  jar  with  binoxide  of  nitrogen  (pre- 
pared as  directed  in  Expt.  73);  add  a  few  drops  of  sulphide  of  carbon, 
and  afterward  shake  the  vessel  in  such  a  way  as  to  diffuse  the  carbon  com- 
pound in  the  atmosphere  of  the  jar.  When  this  has  been  done,  remove 
2 


18  EXPERIMENTAL   EXERCISES   AND   PROBLEMS 

the  stopper,  and  with  a  lighted  taper,  which  the  experimenter  must  have 
ready,  inflame  the  gaseous  mixture.  Its  inflammation  will  be  accompanied 
with  a  slight  explosion. — State  the  results  of  the  experiment,  and  illustrate 
them  by  a  diagram. 

183. — Introduce  some  binoxide  of  mercury  (Hg  0)  into  a  retort  of  hard 
glass,  and  apply  a  strong  heat,  by  means  of  a  Rose  or  Berzelius  lamp. — 
What  will  be  formed  ? 

184. — Introduce  some  red  lead  (Pb304)  into  a  retort  of  hard  glass,  and 
then  heat  it  to  redness,  by  the  means  directed  in  the  last  Expt. — Explain 
the  results,  and  illustrate  them  by  an  equation. 

185. — Introduce  a  quantity  of  dry  and  finely  powdered  nitrate  of  lead 
into  an  earthenware  or  hard  glass  retort,  which  is  then  to  be  heated  to 
full  redness.  The  red  vapors  which  will  be  evolved,  are  to  be  conducted 
into  a  receiver,  carefully  cooled  by  a  mixture  of  snow  and  salt,  where 
they  condense  into  a  liquid. — What  decompositions  take  place,  and  what 
compounds  are  formed  ?  Illustrate  by  a  diagram. 

186. — Introduce  into  a  wide  tube,  or  a  Florence  flask,  to  which  a  bent 
tube  is  attached,  a  small  quantity  of  powdered  chlorate  of  potash,  and 
subsequently  apply  heat. — What  reactions  take  place  ?  Illustrate  by  an 
equation. 

187. — Introduce  into  a  jar  of  nitrous  oxide  (prepared  as  directed  in 
Expt.  165)  a  lighted  taper,  which  will  burn  with  increased  brilliancy  in 
this  gas. — What  is  the  burning  of  the  candle  in  this  gas  due  to?  What 
decompositions  and  combinations  take  place  ?  Explain  why  the  decom- 
positions take  place. 

188. — Introduce  into  ajar  of  binoxide  of  nitrogen  (prepared  as  directed 
in  Expt.  73)  a  lighted  taper,  which  will  be  immediately  extinguished. — 
Explain  why  it  is  that  the  taper  will  not  burn  in  this  gas,  while  it  burns 
with  increased  brilliancy  in  the  protoxide  of  nitrogen. 

189. — Introduce,  by  means  of  a  deflagrating  spoon,  a  piece  of  dry  unig- 
nited  phosphorus  into  a  jar  of  binoxide  of  nitrogen,  and  then  touch  it 
with  a  red  hot  wire.  The  phosphorus  will  not  be  ignited. 

Remove  the  spoon  from  the  jar,  touch  the  phosphorus  with  the  hot 
wire,  and  it  will  immediately  inflame ;  then  introduce  the  inflamed  phos- 
phorus into  the  jar  of  binoxide  of  nitrogen,  and  it  will  continue  to  burn. 
— Explain  the  non-inflammation  of  the  phosphorus  in  the  first  Expt.,  arid 
why  it  was  capable  of  burning  under  the  conditions  of  the  last  Expt. 
State,  also,  what  new  substance  is  formed. 

190. — Mix,  in  a  mortar,  very  briskly,  flowers  of  sulphur  and  metallic 
copper  in  the  state  of  very  fine  powder,  in  the  proportion  of  16  parts  of 
the  former  to  32  of  the  latter.  Explain  the  result. 

191. — Put  some  tartrate  of  lead  into  a  tube  of  hard  glass;  contract  the 
open  extremity,  but  do  not  completely  close  it;  heat  the  tartrate  gradu- 
ally, so  as  to  decompose  it  in  succession,  beginning  at  the  end  nearest 
the  aperture.  In  this  way  dissipate  all  that  is  volatile.  sThe  substance 
which  remains  in  the  tube  will  inflame  the  moment  it  is  projected  into 
the  air,  and  will  continue  to  burn  for  some  time. — State  what  the  sub- 
stance is;  why  it  burns;  and  what  is  produced? 

192. — Dissolve  some  phosphorus  in  bisulphide  of  carbon,  by  adding 
small  pieces  of  phosphorus  to  that  liquid.  Draw  rapidly  the  outline  of 
some  letter  or  figure  with  a  camel' s-hair  pencil,  or  feather,  moistened 


IN    ELEMENTARY   CHEMISTRY.  19 

with  this  phosphorus  solution.     In  a  short  time  every  part  of  the  paper 
coated  with  the  solution  will  burst  into  flame. — Explain  the  phenomena. 

193. — Add  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  ammonia  to  one  of  chloride  of 
calcium. — What  reactions  will  take  place,  and  what  will  be  formed? 
Illustrate  by  a  diagram,  and  also  by  an  equation. 

194. — Add  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda  to  one  of  nitrate  of  lead. 
What  will  take  place,  and  what  will  be  formed?  Illustrate  by  an 
equation. 

195. — Add  to  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  zinc  some  sulphide  of  ammo- 
nium.— What  will  take  place,  and  what  will  be  formed  ?  Illustrate  by 
an  equation. 

196. — Add  some  dilute  sulphuric  acid  to  a  few  fragments  of  sulphide  of 
iron,  in  a  bottle. — State  the  result;  and  illustrate  by  a  diagram. 

197.— Add  to  an  aqueous  solution  of  sulphide  of  hydrogen,  an  aqueous 
solution  of  sulphurous  acid. — What  will  take  place,  and  what  will  be 
formed  ? 

198. — Add  sulphuric  acid  to  a  solution  of  chloride  of  sodium. — State 
the  result,  and  what  will  be  produced.  Illustrate  by  an  equation. 

199. — State  the  properties  of  platinum  sponge;  and  describe  the  con- 
struction and  mode  of  action  of  Dobereiner's  lamp. 

200. — Boil  an  infusion  of  litmus,  or  of  red  cabbage,  with  powdered 
ivory  black,  and  then  pass  the  liquid  through  filtering  paper. — State  the 
results. 

201. — Boil  an  infusion  of  hops  with  powdered  ivory  black,  and  then 
pass  the  liquid  through  filtering  paper. — State  the  results. 

202. — Place  a  few  strips  of  zinc  in  concentrated  sulphuric  acid.  In  a 
similar  vessel,  place  a  like  quantity  of  zinc,  and  some  dilute  sulphuric 
acid  (one  part  of  concentrated  acid  to  8  of  water). — Describe  and  explain 
the  difference  of  action  in  the  two  cases. 

203. — Add  concentrated  nitric  acid  to  carbonate  of  baryta;  and,  in 
another  vessel,  some  dilute  nitric  acid  to  another  portion  of  the  same 
salt. — Describe  and  explain  the  results. 

204. — Add  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  to  a  few  fragments  of  sulphide 
of  iron;  and  dilute  sulphuric  acid  to  another  portion  of  the  iron  com- 
pound.— Describe  and  explain  the  results. 

205.  —Add  absolute  alcohol,  which  is  saturated  with  hydrochloric  acid 
gas,  to  carbonate  of  potash.  To  another  portion  of  the  potash  salt,  add 
water  in  which  the  same  gas  is  dissolved  (ordinary  liquid  hydrochloric 
acid). — Describe  the  behavior  of  the  salt  in  the  two  cases,  and  give  the 
reason  why. 

206. — Chlorine,  as  has  been  proved  by  experiment,  combines  with  phos- 
phorus, with  antimony,  and  some  of  the  other  metals,  at  the  ordinary  tem- 
perature of  the  atmosphere.  Is  it  probable  that  at  some  lower  tempera- 
ture combination  will  not  take  place  between  the  chlorine  and  one  or  the 
other  of  these  elements?  Give  reasons  for  the  opinion  expressed. 

207. — Is  the  order  of  affinity  constant  under  all  conditions? 

208. — What  is  meant  by  the  nascent  state  ? 

209. — Name  some  of  the  properties  of  charcoal. 

210.— Refer  to  the   list  of  acids  given  in  the  "  Table  of  Acid  Sub- 


20  EXPERIMENTAL    EXERCISES    AND    PROBLEMS 

stances/'  and  then  say  Avhich,  if  any  of  the  following  acids  would  set  free 
sulphuric  acid  from  the  sulphate  of  potash  at  a  red  heat:  hydrochloric 
acid,  phosphoric  acid,  nitric  acid,  silicic  acid,  boracic  acid. 

211.— Enumerate  some  of  the  circumstances  which  affect  the  order  of 
decomposition. 

212.— Name  the  several  circumstances  under  which  decomposition  will 
ensue  when  acids  are  added  to  salts. 

213. — Will  any  change  take  place  when  sulphuric  acid  is  added  to  ni- 
trate of  potash,  and  heat  applied  ? 

214. — Name  the  several  circumstances  under  which  decomposition  will 
ensue  when  bases  are  added  to  salts. 

215. — Under  what  condition  would  it  be  possible  for  nitric  acid  to  de- 
compose sulphate  of  potash  ? 

216. — Ammonia  decomposes  chloride  of  lead  in  solution,  and  precipi- 
tates oxide  of  lead  :  is  it  probable  that  oxide  of  lead  will  decompose 
chloride  of  ammonium  under  some  conditions? 

217. — Carbonate  of  lime  is  insoluble;  lime,  therefore,  removes  carbonic 
acid  from  potash  when  carbonate  of  potash  is  in  solution.  What  con- 
ditions are  necessary  to  render  this  decomposition  complete,  and  what 
must  be  guarded  against  in  order  to  prevent  the  potash  taking  back  the 
carbonic  acid  from  the  lime  ? 

218. — Name  the  several  circumstances  under  which  two  salts  in  a  state 
of  solution  will  interchange  their  acids  and  bases. 

219. — Name  the  several  circumstances  under  which  two  salts  in  the 
solid  state  will  interchange  their  acids  and  bases. 

220. — To  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  magnesia  add  ammonia,  which  will 
precipitate  a  portion  of  the  magnesia  as  hydrate.  To  a  solution  of  the 
same  salt,  add  chloride  of  ammonium,  and  then  ammonia ;  in  this  case 
the  ammonia  will  not  produce  a  precipitate,  as  the  oxides  which  are  in- 
soluble in  ammonia,  and  yet  not  precipitated  by  it  in  the  presence  of 
ammoniacal  salts,  form  with  these  salts  double  soluble  salts,  from  wrhich 
combinations  the  ammonia  can  not  precipitate  them. 

221  — To  a  solution  of  alum  add  caustic  soda,  until  the  precipitate 
which  first  forms  is  redissolved ;  then  add  hydrochloric  acid  until  the 
solution  manifests  an  acid  reaction,  and  finally  ammonia  in  excess. 

222. — To  a  solution  of  sesquichloride  of  chromium,  add  a  cold  solution 
of  caustic  soda,  until  the  precipitate  which  first  appears  is  redissolved; 
then  boil  the  solution  until  the  hydrate  once  more  precipitates. 

223. — Add  caustic  soda  to  a  solution  of  protosulphate  of  iron.  Boil 
another  portion  of  the  solution  of  the  iron  salt  with  a  few  drops  of  nitric 
acid,  until  it  becomes  peroxidized,  which  will  be  indicated  by  the  solution 
becoming  yellow;  when  this  is  attained,  add  caustic  soda  in  excess.  Ob- 
serve the  difference  in  color  between  the  two  precipitates. 

224. — Take  three  portions  of  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper ;  to  one 
add  ammonia  until  the  precipitate  which  is  first  formed  redissolves.  To 
the  second  portion  add  caustic  soda  in  the  cold.  Boil  the  third,  and  add 
to  it  caustic  soda. 

225. — Mix  together  a  solution  of  a  persalt  of  iron  (obtained  as  in  Expt. 
223),  and  add  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  alumina  (common  alum  can  be 


IN    ELEMENTARY   CHEMISTRY.  21 

employed);  add  caustic  soda  to  the  mixed  solution  to  precipitate  the 
iron ;  boil  and  filter.  To  the  filtrate  add  hydrochloric  acid  in  excess,  and, 
lastly,  ammonia,  to  precipitate  the  alumina. 

Required  to  know  whether  any  precipitation  will  occur  when  the  follow- 
ing substances  are  added  together;  and  if  so,  what  chemical  changes 
must  ensue. — The  student  should  state  what  chemical  changes  will 
ensue  before  the  experiment  is  made ;  and  afterward  generalize  it. 
For  instance,  if  he  states  that  sulphate  of  lead  will  be  precipitated  when 
an  aqueous  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper  is  added  to  one  nitrate  of 
lead,  he  must  then  say  whether  an  aqueous  solution  of  any  soluble 
sulphate,  on  being  added  to  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  lead,  would  pro- 
duce a  precipitate  of  sulphate  of  lead ;  and  then  he  must  say  whether 
sulphate  of  lead  would  be  formed  on  adding  a  solution  of  any  soluble 
sulphate  to  a  solution  of  any  soluble  salt  of  lead.  He  should  general- 
ize every  question  which  admits  of  it  in  this  way. — See  Table  of  Solu- 
bilities, p.  35. 

226. — If  an  aqueous  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper  were  added  to  one 
of  nitrate  of  lead,  what  would  take  place  ? 

227. — If  an  aqueous  solution  of  sulphate  of  magnesia  were  added  to  one 
of  nitrate  of  baryta  ? 

228. — If  hydrochloric  acid  were  added  to  an  aqueous  solution  of  pro- 
tonitrate  of  mercury,  the  solution  of  the  mercury  salt  containing  a  small 
quantity  of  free  nitric  acid  ? 

229. — If  an  aqueous  solution  of  nitrate  of  potash  were  added  to  one  of 
chloride  of  calcium  ? 

230. — If  an  aqueous  solution  of  oxalate  of  ammonia  were  added  to  one 
of  chloride  of  calcium  ? 

231. — If  an  aqueous  solution  of  chloride  of  sodium  were  added  to  one 
of  nitrate  of  lead  ? 

232. — If  an  aqueous  solution  of  phosphate  of  soda  were  added  to  a  hy- 
drochloric acid  solution  of  chloride  of  calcium  ? 

233. — If  sulphide  of  ammonium  were  added  to  an  aqueous  solution  of 
sulphate  of  copper  ? 

234. — Ff  an  aqueous  solution  of  chromate  of  potash  were  added  to  one 
of  chloride  of  barium  ? 

235. — If  an  aqueous  solution  of  sulphate  of  magnesia  were  added  to 
one  of  nitrate  of  potash  ? 

236. — If  an  aqueous  solution  of  carbonate  of  ammonia  were  added  to 
one  of  chloride  of  calcium? 

237. — If  an  aqueous  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda  (any  of  the  carbon- 
ates of  soda  will  do)  were  added  to  one  of  protosulphate  of  iron? 

238. — If  an  aqueous  solution  of  chloride  of  ammonium  were  added  to 
one  of  sulphate  of  zinc? 

239. — If  an  aqueous  solution  of  chromate  of  potash  were  added  to  a  ni- 
tric acid  solution  of  nitrate  of  baryta  ? 

240. — Prepare  some  sulphide  of  manganese  from  the  chloride.  Explain 
the  process. 

241. — Dissolve  some  soluble  salt  of  baryta  in  water,  and  prepare  from 


22         EXPERIMENTAL  EXERCISES  AND  PROBLEMS 

that  solution  the  phosphate,  chromate,  carbonate,  and  sulphate  of  baryta. 
For  this  purpose,  divide  the  solution  into  four  separate  portions;  add  to 
one  of  the  four  portions  a  soluble  phosphate;  to  another  a  soluble  chro- 
mate ;  to  a  third  a  soluble  carbonate ;  and  to  the  remaining  portion  a 
soluble  sulphate. 

242. — Prepare  anhydrous  oxide,  hydrated  oxide,  and  sulphide  of  copper, 
from  a  salt  of  that  metal  which  is  soluble  in  water. 

243. — Prepare  a  small  quantity  of  sulphate,  carbonate,  and  chloride  of 
lead,  from  a  salt  of  that  metal  which  is  soluble  in  water. 

244. — Prepare  some  sulphate  of  baryta  from  the  carbonate. 

(NOTE. — Before  soluble  salts  can  be  prepared  from  insoluble  ones,  the 
latter  must,  by  acids  or  other  means,  be  brought  into  a  state  of  solution.) 

245. — Prepare  some  carbonate  of  zinc  from  the  sulphide. 

246. — Dissolve  a  salt  of  baryta  and  a  protosalt  of  mercury,  which  can 
exist  together  without  decomposition,  in  an  appropriate  quantity  of  water. 
Precipitate  the  mercury  from  the  solution  containing  the  two  salts,  by 
adding  to  the  solution  some  acid  base  or'  salt,  which  will  precipitate  it 
either  as  insoluble  oxide  or  as  an  insoluble  salt.  Filter  off  from  the  pre- 
cipitate thus  formed,  and  to  the  nitrate  (the  liquid  which  passes  through 
the  filter),  which  ought,  if  sufficient  of  the  substance  employed  to  precip- 
itate the  mercury  were  used,  only  to  contain  the  baryta  (disregarding  the 
substances  employed  to  precipitate  the  mercury),  add  some  acid  base  or 
salt  which  will  precipitate  the  baryta. 

247. — Dissolve  a  salt  of  peroxide  of  mercury  and  one  of  lime  in  water, 
and  separate  them  in  a  similar  manner. 

248. — Dissolve  a  salt  of  lime,  a  salt  of  zinc,  and  a  salt  of  peroxide  of 
iron,  and  separate  them  in  a  similar  manner. 

249. — A  manufacturing  chemist  has  a  quantity  of  impure  chloride  of 
ammonium,  which  he  desires  to  purify.  The  impurity  is  perchloride  of 
iron.  If  he  were  to  dissolve  the  impure  ammonia  salt  in  water,  could  he 
precipitate  the  iron  in  such  a  way  that  chloride  of  ammonium  would  be 
the  only  substance  remaining  in  solution  ? 

250. — Describe  Ure's  eudiometer,  and  the  method  and  object  of  its 
use.  Introduce  into  it  the  gases  requisite  to  form  water  in  the  proper 
proportions,  and  cause  them  to  combine. 

251. — Introduce,  in  the  same  way,  the  elements  required  to  form  hydro- 
chloric acid,  and  cause  them  to  combine. 

252. — Introduce,  in  the  same  way,  one  volume  of  oxygen  and  two  of 
carbonic  oxide,  and  cause  them  to  combine. — What  will  be  produced  ? 

253. — If  thin  metallic  leaves  are  subjected  to  the  action  of  an  electric 
current,  either  from  the  machine  or  battery,  they  inflame  and  burn  with 
considerable  brilliancy. — What  is  formed  in  such  cases?  Is  the  disap- 
pearance of  a  metal  under  the  action  of  an  electric  current,  and  attended 
with  the  evolution  of  light  and  heat,  proof  that  it  has  undergone  combus- 
tion ;  that  is  to  say,  oxidation  ? 

254. — Describe  "  Smee's  battery,"  and  the  apparatus  necessary  for  the 
electrolysis  of  water.  To  which  pole  does  the  hydrogen  go? 

255. — Bend  a  glass  tube,  half  an  inch  in  diameter  and  from  8  to  10 
inches  long,  into  the  shape  of  the  letter  V.  Fill  the  tube  with  a  weak 
solution  of  sulphate  of  soda,  colored  blue  with  a  solution  of  litmus.  In- 


IN   ELEMENTARY   CHEMISTRY.  23 

sert  a  plate  of  platinum  foil  soldered  to  a  copper  wire  into  the  solution  at 
each  end  of  the  tube,  and  connect  the  opposite  end  of  each  wire  with  the 
galvanic  battery,  by  means  of  the  binding  screws.  Describe  the  phenom- 
ena, and  state  what  chemical  action  takes  place. — Then  transpose  the 
connections  of  the  wires  with  the  binding  screws,  and  notice  and  describe 
the  resulting  phenomena. 

256. — Fill  the  V  tube  with  a  solution  of  iodide  of  potassium,  containing 
some  starch  paste.  Insert  the  platinum  plates  into  the  solution,  and  con- 
nect the  wires  with  the  battery,  as  before. — Describe  the  results. 

257. — Introduce  into  the  V  tube  hydrochloric  acid,  colored  blue  with  a 
solution  of  sulphate  of  indigo. — What  reactions  will  take  place  when  the 
current  is  passed  through  the  acid  ? 

258. — What  will  take  place,  if  the  terminal  wires  of  the  battery  be 
dipped  into  a  cup  containing  fused  chloride  of  lead  in  solution  ? 

259. — Insert  the  terminal  wires,  which  must  be  platinum,  into  a  solu- 
tion of  sulphate  of  copper. — State  the  results;  and  then  say  what  would 
take  place  if  the  portions  of  the  terminal  wires  inserted  in  the  fluid  were 
copper. 

260. — Let  three  cups,  A  B  C,  be  placed  side  by  side,  and  be  connected 
by  means  of  pieces  of  candle-wick  moistened  with  a  solution  of  sulphate 
of  soda.  Let  A  be  filled  with  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  soda;  B  writh  a 
solution  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid;  and  C  with  water.  Let  the  positive  wire 
(platinum)  of  a  battery  dip  in  A,  and  the  negative  in  C.  The  positive 
current  will,  of  course,  enter  the  fluid  in  A,  pass  on  through  the  fluid  in 
B  and  C,  and  escape  by  the  wire  in  this  latter  cup. — State  the  effects  of 
the  current  during  its  passage. 

261. — If  a  vessel  be  filled  with  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  soda,  and  the 
wires,  terminating  in  plates,  of  a  battery  in  action  be  inserted,  the  acid 
will  collect  upon  the  one  and  the  alkali  upon  the  other  plate ;  but  if,  by 
means  of  pieces  of  bladder,  the  vessel  be  divided  into  three  compartments, 
A,  B,  and  C,  and  the  central  one  being  filled  with  a  solution  of  sulphate 
of  soda,  dilute  nitric  acid  is  poured  into  those  at  the  side,  in  which  the 
plates  are  placed,  in  order  to  afford  a  conducting  medium,  no  acid  or 
alkali  appears  at  the  metallic  poles  when  the  current  passes.  As  the 
compound  in  B  is  decomposed,  where  are  its  elements  evolved  ? 

262. — In  what  manner  can  the  principle  illustrated  in  the  preceding 
Expts.  be  demonstrated  by  the  electricity  of  the  machine  ? 

263. — State  the  nomenclature  of  Prof.  Faraday  as  applied  to  a  decom- 
posing cell  in  action. 

264. — Mention  some  of  the  circumstances  which  resist  the  decomposing 
power  of  an  electrical  current ;  and  state  the  best  means  of  overcoming 
the  resistances  you  may  name. 

265. — What  are  the  necessary  elements  for  making  a  voltaic  circuit? 

266. — In  charging  a  Leyden  jar  by  means  of  an  ordinary  electrical  ma- 
chine, explain  fully  the  whole  process  which  goes  on,  beginning  with  the 
rubber  and  ending  with  the  jar. 

267. — What  does  the  direction  of  the  galvanic  current  depend  upon  ? 

268. — What  means  are  there  of  obtaining  from  a  voltaic  battery  elec- 
tricity approaching  in  its  intensity  to  that  of  electricity  obtained  by 
friction  ? 


24         EXPERIMENTAL  EXERCISES  AND  PROBLEMS 

269. — State  what  is  meant  by  the  terms  electronegative  and  electro- 
positive. 

270. — What  is  meant  by  the  terms  electrolyte  and  electrolysis? 

271. — (rive  a  summary  of  the  more  important  principles  connected  with 
electrolysis. 

272. — Mix  briskly,  in  a  mortar,  about  four  grains  of  powdered  chlorate 
of  potash,  two  grains  of  charcoal  powder,  and  two  grains  of  flowers  of 
sulphur.  The  substances  will  react  upon  one  another,  the  reaction  being 
attended  with  flame  and  a  slight  noise. — State  what  chemical  changes 
take  place. 

273. — Mix  four  grains  of  powdered  chlorate  of  potash  and  six  grains  of 
flowers  of  sulphur,  very  intimately,  on  paper,  by  means  of  a  "knife  or 
feather ;  and  then  divide  the  powder  into  three  parts.  Introduce  one  part, 
by  means  of  a  knife,  into  a  wine  glass  containing  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid;  it  will  immediately  take  fire.  Place  another  part  in  a  dry  mortar, 
and  then  rub  very  briskly.  Slight  explosions,  accompanied  with  light, 
will  ensue.  Wrap  the  rest  of  the  mixture,  in  a  little  tin-foil,  lay  it  on  an 
anvil  or  a  piece  of  iron,  strike  it  with  a  hammer,  and  a  loud  report  will 
be  produced. — State  the  chemical  and  physical  results. 

274. — Mix  equal  parts  of  powdered  chlorate  of  potash  and  powdered 
loaf-sugar — about  20  grains  of  each — on  paper.  Place  the  mixture  upon 
a  plate,  and  touch  it  with  a  glass  rod  which  has  just  been  dipped  in 
strong  sulphuric  acid;  it  will  immediately  burst  into  a  flame. 

275. — Powder  coarsely  a  few  crystals  of  nitrate  of  copper,  lay  them  on 
a  piece  of  tin-foil,  add  enough  water  to  make  them  into  a  paste,  and  then 
quickly  fold  up  the  tin-foil,  doubling  the  sides  and  corners  well  together, 
so  as  to  exclude  air:  in  a  short  time,  nitrous  acid  gas  (NO4)  will  force  its 
way  out  of  the  packet,  and  the  tin-foil  will  take  fire. — Explain  the  insta- 
bility of  the  compounds  employed  in  the  last  four  Expts. 

276. — Add  a  solution  of  bichromate  of  potash  to  a  strong  nitric  or 
hydrochloric  acid  solution  of  peroxide  of  barium.  Violent  effervescence 
and  escape  of  oxygen  ensues,  owing  to  the  decomposition  of  the  chromic 
acid  and  of  the  peroxide  of  barium. — What  substances  result  from  these 
decompositions  ? 

277. — Add  a  solution  of  permanganate  of  potash  to  a  strong  nitric  or 
hydrochloric  acid  solution  of  peroxide  of  barium,  and,  as  in  Expt.  276,  a 
violent  effervescence  and  escape  of  oxygen  occurs. — What  are  the  results  ?  ... 

278. — Add  a  little  oxide  of  silver  to  an  acetic  acid  solution  of  peroxide 
of  barium :  oxygen  will  be  again  evolved,  owing  to  the  oxide  of  silver 
being  totally  decomposed,  as  well  as  the  peroxide  of  barium. — What  are 
the  results  of  the  decompositions?  Illustrate  them  by  an  equation. 

279. — If  chlorine  water  be  poured  into  vessels  containing  infusion  of 
blue  cabbage,  of  litmus,  or  of  any  vegetable  color,  what  will  be  the 
result  ? 

280. — Stain  a  piece  of  linen  or  cotton  with  port  wine  or  fruit  juice; 
and  when  dry  immerse  it  in  water  containing  a  little  free  chlorine.  The 
stain  will  be  quickly  removed. — What  chemical  action  has  taken  place  ? 

281. — Take  a  piece  of  dyed  cotton  or  linen  cloth,  and  paint  upon  it 
some  figure,  with  a  paste  consisting  of  ordinary  flour  paste  to  which  a 
little  tartaric  acid  has  been  added.  Dry  the  cloth,  and  afterward  immerse 


IN    ELEMENTARY    CHEMISTRY.  25 

it  in  a  hot  solution  of  chloride  of  lime  (CaO,  Cl.) — Explain  the  reactions 
which  cause  the  bleaching. 

The  student  must  write  out  answers  to  the  following  questions : — 
282. — What  substances  are  termed  fermentescible  ? 
283. — What  is  the  difference  between  putrescible  and  fermentescible 
bodies  ? 

284. — State  what  is  meant  by  the  terms  Decay,  Fermentation  and  Pu- 
trefaction. 

285. — Does  a  ferment  undergo  the  same  decomposition  in  the  presence 
of  a  fermentescible  body  as  it  does  alone  ? 

286. — Has  heat  any  influence  on  putrefaction  and  fermentation? 
287. — What  is  meant  by  the  terms  Metameric  and  Polymeric  ? 
Write  out  the  names  of  the  following  compounds  in  your  note-book : — 
288.— K  Cl.  294.— Au  Br3.  300.— Pb  I2. 

289.— N  H4  S.  295.— B  F3.  301.—  Mn  S. 

290.—  H  F.  296.— Zn  P»r.  302.— Pb  S. 

291.— Fo  S,.  297.— Sn  Cl,.  303.— H  8. 

292.— Na  I.  298.— I  Cl.  304.— H  Cl. 

293.— Ba  F.  299.— I  C13.  305.— H  I. 

306.— H  Br. 

Write  out  the  symbols  of  the  following  compounds: — 

307. — Iodide  of  potassium.  313. — Chloride  of  ammonium. 

308. — Bisulphide  of  ammonium.  314. — Subchloride  of  sulphur. 

309. — Fluoride  of  calcium.  315. — Terbromide  of  gold. 

310. — Sesquibromide  of  iron.  316. — Quadrosulphide  of  potassium. 

311. — Terhydride  of  arsenic.  317. — Dinoxide  of  copper. 

312. — Iodide  of  silver.  318. — Sesquioxide  of  manganese. 

NOTE. — Hydrides  and  Hydrates  are  two  different  classes  of  compounds. 
The  first  are  compounds  of  hydrogen  with  other  substances  ;  the 
latter  are  compounds  of  water  with  other  substances. 

The  formulae  for  the  following  salts  must  be  written  out,  along  with  the 
combining  proportions  of  acid,  base,  and  salt: — 

{   KII39J47 
EXAMPLE.— Sulphate  of  potash,  KO,SO3  J    g^lfi  { 

I  30  =24  j40 
87 

319. — Sulphate  of  soda  (glauber's-salt). 
320. — Sulphate  of  ammonia. 
321. — Sulphate  of  baryta  (heavy  spar). 
322. — Sulphate  of  lime  (gypsum). 
323. — Sulphate  of  magnesia  (Epsom  salts). 
324. — Sulphate  .of  zinc  (white  vitriol). 
325. — Sulphate  of  protoxide  of  iron  (green  vitriol). 
326. — Sulphate  of  copper  (blue  vitriol). 
327. — Sulphite  of  potash. 
328.— Sulphite  of  soda. 
329. — Sulphite  of  ammonia. 
330. — Sulphide  of  Lime. 


26        EXPERIMENTAL  EXERCISES  AND  PROBLEMS 

331.— Sulphite  of  lead. 

332. — Subsulphide  of  mercury. 

333. — Sulphide  of  mercury. 

334. — Sulphide  of  lead  (galena). 

335. — Sulphide  of  zinc  (blende,  black-jack). 

336. — Sulphide  of  barium. 

337. — Sulphide  of  ammonium. 

338.— Nitrate  of  potash  (saltpetre). 

339.— Nitrate  of  soda. 

340. — Nitrate  of  ammonia. 

341. — Nitrate  of  lead. 

342. — Nitrate  of  strontia. 

343. — Nitrate  of  silver  (lunar  caustic). 

344. — Nitrate  of  suboxide  of  mercury. 

345.— Chlorate  of  potash. 

346. — Chlorate  of  baryta. 

347. — Chlorate  of  soda. 

348.— Chlorate  of  lime. 

349. — Chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt). 

350. — Chloride  of  ammonium  (sal  ammoniac). 

351. — Protochloride  of  iron. 

352. — Sesquichloride  of  iron. 

353. — Protochloride  of  tin. 

354. — Bichloride  of  tin.     ' 

355. — Subchloride  of  mercury  (calomel). 

356. — Chloride  of  mercury  (corrosive  sublimate). 

357. — Chromate  of  potash. 

358. — Chromate  of  baryta. 

359. — Chromate  of  lead. 

360. — Carbonate  of  soda. 

361. — Carbonate  of  ammonia. 

362. — Carbonate  of  potash  (salt  of  tartar). 

363. — Carbonate  of  lime  (chalk,  limestone,  marble). 

364. — Carbonate  of  baryta  (witherite). 

365. — Carbonate  of  strontia  (strontianite). 

366. — Carbonate  of  zinc  (calamine,  dry-bones). 

367. — Carbonate  of  manganese 

368. — Oxalate  of  potash. 

369. — Oxalate  of  soda. 

370. — Oxalate  of  ammonia. 

371. — Oxalate  of  baryta. 

372.— Oxalate  of  lime. 

373. — Oxalate  of  silver. 

374. — Iodide  of  potassium. 

375. — Subiodide  of  mercury. 

376. — Iodide  of  mercury. 

377.— Iodide  of  lead. 

378. — Cyanide  of  potassium. 

379. — Cyanide  of  silver. 

380. — Tercyanide  of  gold. 

381. — Protocyanide  of  iron. 


IN   ELEMENTARY   CHEMISTRY.  27 

382. — Cyanide  of  mercury. 

383. — Cyanide  of  copper. 
Write  out  the  names  of  the  following  salts : 

384.— Mn  0,  S  O3.          389.— Ba  O,  N  O5.          394.— Hg  Cy. 
385  — Hg  O,  Cr  O3.         390.— Sn  So.  _  395.— Cd  0,  S  O8. 

386.—  Sb  C13.  391.— Pb  O,O.  396.— Fe«Cy8. 

387.— Zn  O,  S  O*  392.— Sr  O,  Cl  05.         397.— Ca  O,  N  05. 

388.— Ag  O,  C  O2.          393.— Hg  I.  398.— Ni  0,  8  03. 

Write  out  the  formulae  of  the  following  neutral  salts:  — 

399. — Sulphate  of  alumina. 

400. — Sulphate  of  binoxide  of  tin. 

401. — Nitrate  of  the  sesquioxide  of  iron. 

402. — Chlorate  of  the  protoxide  of  mercury. 

403. — Silicate  of  alumina. 

404. — Sulphate  of  the  teroxide  of  antimony. 

405. — Sulphate  of  the  sesquioxide  of  chromium. 

Write  out  the  formulae  of  the  following  acid  salts;  the  excess  of  acid  in 
each  example  being  considered  present  in  the  anhydrous  state: — 

406. — Sesquicarbonate  of  ammonia. 

407. — Quadroborate  of  soda. 

408. — Bisulphate  of  soda. 

409. — Terborate  of  magnesia. 

410. — Sexborate  of  magnesia. 

411. — Sesquisulphate  of  potash. 

412. — Bicarbonate  of  soda. 
Write  out  the  formulae  for  the  following  basic  salts : — 

413. — Bicarbonate  of  copper. 

414. — Triborate  of  magnesia. 

415. — Bicarbonate  of  lime. 

416. — Terbasic  subsilicate  of  magnesia. 

417. — Bibasic  subsulphate  of  copper. 

418. — Bisilicate  of  lime. 

The  names  of  the  following  compounds  must  be  written  out  by  the  stu- 
dent, in  order  that  he  may  become  thoroughly  conversant  with  all 
the  rules  which  have  been  given : — 
419.— Hg  0.  435.— 2  Na  O,  3  C  02. 

420.— Cr2  C13.  436.— 2  Zn  O,  C  O2. 

421.— Fe  S.  437.— B.  F3. 

422.— Fe  O,  C  02.  438.— Sn  O2,  2  S  O2. 

423.— Fe2O3.  439.— Mg  O,  S  O3  +  K  0.  S  03. 

424.— Au  Br3.  440  — Cu2  O. 

425.— Zn  O,  S  O3  +  K  0,  S  03.          441.— 2  Pb  O,  Pb  Cl. 
426.— Ca  O,  Si  O3.  442.— Fe,  O3,  3  S  03  +  N  H<  0,  S  03. 

427.— Ca  O,  2  Si  O*  443.— Na"  0,_S2  O2. 

428.— 2  Ca  O,  Si  03.  444.— K  O,  O  +  3  (H  0,  O). 

429.— Ca  O,  3  Si  O3.  445.— Mn  O,  S  O8  +  Na  O.  S  08. 

430.— 3  Ca  O,  Si  O3.  446.— Cr  F8. 

431.— K  S3.  447.— 3  Pb  O,  N  O5. 

432.— K  O,  S  O2  +  H  0,  S  02.  448.— Pt  I2,  K  I. 

433.— Cr2  O3,  3  S  O3.  449.— Mn*  O3  3  S  03. 

434.— K  O,  3  Cr  O*  450.— Ba  O.  C  O3  +  Ca  0,  C  Ofl. 


28  EXPERIMENTAL    EXERCISES    AND    PROBLEMS 

Write  out  the  formulae  for  the  following  substances : — 

451.- — Two  equivalents  of  sesquichloride  of  chromium. 

452. — Three  equivalents  of  sulphate  of  ammonia. 

453. — Two  equivalents  of  chloride  of  platinum  and  potassium. 

454. — Two  equivalents  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  magnesia. 

455. — One  equivalent  of  phosphate  of  soda,  composed  of  two  equivalents 
of  soda,  one  equivalent  of  essential  water,  and  one  of  anhydrous  phos- 
phoric acid. 

456. — Two  equivalents  of  silicate  of  lime. 

457. — Three  equivalents  of  felspar,  which  is  a  double  silicate  of  alumina 
arid  potash. 

458. — Three  equivalents  of  the  oxalate  of  the  sesquioxide  of  iron. 

459. — Two  equivalents  of  the  protoiodide  of  iron. 

460. — Two  equivalents  of  binoxalate  of  potash. 

461. — Three  equivalents  of  phosphate  o.f  silver ;  one  equivalent  of  which 
is  composed  of  three  equivalents  of  oxide  of  silver,  and  one  of  anhydrous 
phosphoric  acid. 

462. — Dolomite  (inagnesian  limestone) ;  composed  of  one  equivalent  of 
neutral  carbonate  of  lime,  and  three  equivalents  of  neutral  carbonate  of 
magnesia. 

463. — One  equivalent  of  the  sulphate  of  the  sesquioxide  of  iron  and 
potash  (iron  alum) ;  which  contains,  in  addition  to  the  sulphuric  acid, 
potash,  and  sesquioxide  of  iron,  twenty-four  atoms  of  non-essential  water. 

464. — Two  equivalents  of  sulphate  of  copper;  one  equivalent  of  which 
is  composed  of  an  equivalent  of  anhydrous  sulphuric  acid,  one  of  oxide 
of  copper,  one  of  essential  water,  and  six  of  non-essential  water. 

465 — One  equivalent  of  the  oxalate  of  the  sesquioxide  of  iron  and 
potash ;  which  contains,  in  addition  to  the  bases  and  acid,  six  equivalents 
of  non-essential  water. 

466. — One  equivalent  of  oxychloride  of  antimony  (powder  of  Algarotti) ; 
composed  of  one  equivalent  of  terchloride  of  antimony,  three  equivalents 
of  teroxide  of  antimony,  and  three  equivalents  of  non-essential  water. 

467. — Three  equivalents  of  perphosphate  of  iron;  one  equivalent  of 
which  is  composed  of  two  equivalents  of  sesquioxide  of  iron,  three  equiv- 
alents of  essential  water,  and  three  of  anhydrous  phosphoric  acid. 

468. — The  topaz ;  composed  of  one  equivalent  of  alumina,  two  equiva- 
lents of  fluoride  of  aluminum,  and  six  equivalents  of  a  silicate  of  alumina 
(one  equivalent  of  which  is  composed  of  an  equivalent  of  alumina  and  one 
equivalent  of  silicic  acid). 

469. — Serpentine;  composed  of  three  equivalents  of  hydrate  of  mag- 
nesia (one  equivalent  of  which  contains  one  equivalent  of  magnesia  and 
two  equivalents  of  water),  and  two  equivalents  of  a  subsilicate  of  magnesia 
(one  equivalent  of  which  contains  three  equivalents  of  magnesia,  and  two 
equivalents  of  silicic  acid). 

470. — Meerschaum;  composed  of  one  equivalent  of  sesquisilicate  of 
magnesia,  and  two  equivalents  of  water. 

471. — If  hydrosulphuric  acid  be  added  to  iodine,  hydriodic  acid  will  be 
formed. — What  element  must  be  set  free  ? 


IN   ELEMENTARY   CHEMISTRY. 


29 


472. — If  hydrochloric  acid  be  added  to  /inc,  hydrogen  will  be  set  free. — 
What  compound  must  be  formed? 

473. — If  sulphuric  acid  be  added  to  iron,  sulphate  of  protoxide  of  iron 
will  be  formed. — What  element  must  be  set  free  ? 

474. — If  potassium  be  added  to  water,  potash  will  be  formed. — What 
element  must  be  set  free  ? 

475. — If  carbonate  of  soda  be  added  to  nitrate  of  baryta,  what  other 
substances  besides  carbonate  of  baryta  will  be  formed  ? 

(NOTE. — Instead  of  repeating  the  propositions  and  questions  in  full,  we 
shall,  in  the  following  exercises,  name  the  substances  brought  together 
under  the  head  of  "Substances  added,"  and  the  substance  or  sub- 
stances formed,  under  the  head  of  "Substances  set  free  or  formed.") 


Substances  added. 
476. — Hydrochloric  acid. 

Solution  of  soda. 
477. — Solution  of  carbonate  of  soda. 

Solution  of  nitrate  of  strontia. 
478. — Sulphuric  acid. 

Chloride  of  sodium. 
479. — Solution  of  chloride  of  sodium. 

Solution  of  nitrate  of  silver. 
480. — Sulphuric  acid. 

Nitrate  of  potash. 
481. — Sulphide  of  ammonium. 

Solution  of  sulphate  of  zinc. 
482. — Solution  of  chromate  of  potash. 

Solution  of  chloride  of  barium. 

483. — Solution  of  hydrate   of  soda 
(Na  O,  H  O). 

Solution  of  chloride  of  man- 
ganese. 

484. — Solution  of  carbonate  of  am- 
monia. 

Solution  of  sulphate  of  lime. 
485. — Hydrosulphuric  acid. 

Solution  of  nitrate  of  lead. 
486. — Solution  of  sulphate  of  soda. 

Solution  of  chloride  of  barium. 
487. — Solution  of  iodide  of  potassium. 

Solution  of  nitrate  of  silver. 
488. — Solution  of  oxalic  acid. 

Solution  of  nitrate  of  baryta. 
489. — Sulphide  of  ammonium. 

Solution  of  nitrate  of  cobalt. 
490. — Hydrochloric  acid. 

Solution  of  nitrate  of  suboxide 
of  mercury. 


Substances  set  free  or  formed. 
Chloride  of  sodium, 

And ? 

Carbonate  of  stroutia, 

And ? 

Sulphate  of  soda, 
And ? 

Chloride  of  silver, 

And ? 

Sulphate  of  potash, 

And  ? 

Sulphide  of  zinc, 

And ? 

Chromate  of  baryta, 

And ? 

Hydrate  of  manganese  (MnO, 

HO), 
And ? 

Carbonate  of  lime, 


And ? 

Sulphide  of  lead, 

And ? 

Sulphate  of  baryta, 

And ? 

Iodide  of  silver, 

And ? 

Oxalate  of  baryta, 

And ? 

Sulphide  of  cobalt, 
And  ? 

Subchloride  of  mercury, 
And ? 


30 


EXPERIMENTAL    EXERCISES   AND    PROBLEMS 


Substances  added.  Substances  set  free  or  formed. 

491. — Hydrosulphuric  acid.  Sulphide  of  mercury, 

Solution  of  chloride  of  mer-  And ? 

cury. 

(NOTE. — Express  the  chemical  changes  which  take  place  in  the  following 
exercises,  both  by  diagrams  drawn  on  the  blackboard,  and  by  equa- 
tions.) 

Substances  added.  Substances  formed  or  set  free. 

492. — Sulphide  of  ammonium.  Hydrate  of  sesquioxide  of  chromium, 

Solution  of  the  sesquichloride  And ? 

of  chromium. 

493. — When  solid  chlorate  of  potash  is  ignited,  it  is  decomposed  into 
oxygen  and  chloride  of  potassium. — How  many  equivalents  of  oxygen 
will  be  liberated  from  one  atom  of  chlorate  of  potash  ? 

494. — When  solid  nitrate  of  ammonia  is  heated,  it  is  decomposed  into 
nitrous  oxide  (laughing  gas,  N  O)  and  some  other  substance. — What  will 
the  other  substance  be,  and  how  many  atoms  of  each  will  be  formed  from 
one  atom  of  nitrate  of  ammonia? 


Substances  added. 
495. — Hydrochloric  acid. 
Sesquioxide  of  iron. 

496. — Solution  of  protochloride  of 

copper. 
Solution  of  iodide  of  potassium. 

497. — Solution  of  hydrate  of  potash 

(K  O,  H  O)'. 

Solution   of  protochloride   of 
copper. 

498. — Solution  of  arsenious  acid. 

Solution  of  sulphate  of  copper. 

499. — Protoxide  of  tin. 
Sulphurous  acid. 

500. — Solution  of  hydrate  of  soda 

(Na  O,  H  O). 

Solution  of  sesquichloride  of 
chromium. 

501 . — Terchloride  of  antimony. 

Water. 

502. — Carbonate  of  lead. 
Chromate  of  potash. 

503. — Terchloride  of  bismuth. 
Water. 


Substances  set  free  or  formed. 
Sesquichloride  of  iron, 
And ? 

Sub  iodide  of  copper  (Cu2I), 

And ? 

Oxychloride  of  copper  (Cu  Cl, 

3  Cu  O  +  aq), 
And ? 


Arsenite  of  copper  (2  Cu  0,  As  03), 
And ? 

Oxysulphide  of  tin  (5Sn02,  SnS2), 

And ?  , 

Hydrate  of  sesquioxide  of  chromium 

(CroO3)3HO), 
And ? 


Oxychloride  of  antimony  (Sb  C18, 

5  Sb  O8), 
And ? 

Bichromate  of  lead, 
And ? 

Oxychloride    of  bismuth  (Bi  C18, 

2  Bi  O,), 
And ? 


504. — Solution  of  the  sulphate  of  the     Sulphate  of  the  protoxide  of  iron, 
sesquioxide  of  iron. 


Sulphurous  acid. 


And 


IN    ELEMENTARY    CHEMISTRY.  31 

Substances  added.  Substances  set  free  or  formed. 

505. — Solution  of  hydrate  of  soda.  Hydrate  of  alumina  (AlaO8,  3  II  0), 

Solution  of  sulphate  of  alu-  And ? 

mina. 

506. — Solution  of  phosphate  of  soda  Phosphate  of  baryta  (2  Ba  O,  H  O, 

(2NaO,HO,  PO5).  P  U6), 

Solution  of  nitrate  of  baryta.  And ? 

507. — Solution  of  phosphate  of  soda.  Phosphate  of  silver  (3  Ag  0,  P  O5), 

Solution  of  nitrate  of  silver.  And ? 

508. — Solution  of  phosphate  of  soda.  Phosphate  of  copper  (2  Cu  O.  II  0 

Y  O*), 

Solution  of  sulphate  of  copper.  And ? 

509. — Solutisn  of  phosphate  of  soda.  Phosphate  of  lime  (3  Ca  0,  P  O6), 

Solution   of  chloride   of   cal-  And ? 

cium. 

510. — Solution  the  sulphate  of  the  Sulphate  of  the  protoxide  of  iron, 

sesquioxide  of  iron. 

Hydrosulphuric  acid.  And  ? 

511. — Solution  of  the  phosphate  of  Phosphate  of  magnesia  and  ammonia 
soda.  (2  Mg  0,  N  H4  O,  P  O6), 

Solution  of  ammonia. 

Solution  of  sulphate  of  mag-  And ? 

nesia. 

512. — Ammonia.  Hydrate  of  the  sesquioxide  of  iron 

(Fe203,HO), 

Sesqui chloride  of  iron.  And ? 

513. — Arsenious  acid.  Terhydride  of  arsenic  (AsA3), 
Sulphuric  acid. 

Zinc.  And ? 

514. — Hydrochloric  acid.  Protochloride  of  manganese, 

Peroxide  of  manganese  (Mn  And ? 

02). 

515. — Solution  of  nitrate  of  protoxide  Subiodide  of  copper  (Cu2 1), 

of  copper. 

Solution  of  sulphate  of  protox-  Sulphate  of  sesquioxide  of  iron, 
ide  of  iron. 

Solution  of  iodide   of  potas-  And ? 

sium. 

516. — Solution  of  carbonate  of  am-  Hydrate  of  alumina  (A12  O3,  3  H  0), 
monia. 

Solution   of  sulphate  of  alu-  And ? 

mina. 

517. — Sulphide  of  ammonium.  Hydrate  of  seaquioxide  of  chromium 

(O2  O8,  3  H  O), 

Sesquichloride  of  chromium.  And ? 


32        EXPERIMENTAL  EXERCISES  AND  PROBLEMS 

Substances  added.  Substances  set  free  or  formed. 

518. — Solution  of  carbonate  of  am-    Hydrate  of  sesquioxide  of  iron, 
monia. 

Solution  of  sesquichloride  of     And ? 

iron. 

519. — Solution  of  phosphate  of  soda.     Perphosphate  of  iron  (2  Fe2  03. 

3HO,3P05), 

Solution  of  sesquichloride  of     And ? 

iron. 

520. — Solution  of  carbonate  of  pot-  Basic  carbonate  of  magnesia  3  (MgO, 

ash.  C02+aq.)  +  (MgO,HO)  , 

Solution  of  sulphate  of  mag-    And ? 

nesia. 

521. — Solution  of  carbonate  of  soda.     Basic  carbonate  of  zinc  (3ZnO, 

H0)-f  2(ZnO,C02), 
Solution  of  sulphate  of  zinc.       And ? 

522. — Sulphuric  acid.  Sulphate  of  the  protoxide  of  manga. 
Chloride  of  sodium.  nese, 

Peroxide  of  manganese  And ? 

(Mn  O2). 

523. — Find  the  amount  of  lead  in  100  tons  of  the  sulphide. 

524. — Find  the  amount  of  chlorine,  by  weight,  in  50  Ibs.  of  chloride 
of  sodium. 

525. — Find  the  amount  of  silver  in  1,000  Ibs.  of  sulphide  of  silver  and 
antimony  (3  AgS,  SbS3). 

526. — Find  the  amount  of  platinum  in  100  parts  of  chloride  of  platinum 
and  ammonium. 

527. — Find  the  amount  of  iron  in  360  grs.  of  sesquichloride. 

528. — What  amount  of  oxygen,  by  weight,  would  one  ton  of  sulphur 
require  to  be  converted  into  sulphuric  acid  ? 

529. — Find  the  amount  of  anhydrous  nitric  acid  in  10  Ibs.  of  nitrate 
of  soda,  and  likewise  in  the  same  amount  of  nitrate  of  potash. 

530. — How  much  water  must  200  Ibs.  of  quicklime  absorb  to  become 
converted  into  hydrate? 

531. — A  chemical  manufacturer  delivers  to  his  workmen  50  Ibs.  of 
metallic  silver,  to  be  converted  into  nitrate  (caustic). — What  amount  by 
weight  of  the  caustic  ought  to  be  obtained  ? 

532. — If  100  grain  measures  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid  neutralize  47 
grains  of  potash,  what  amount  of  carbonate  of  potash,  and  what  amount 
of  ammonia,  lime,  soda,  and  their  carbonates,  will  it  neutralize? 

533. — How  much  ammonia  would  300  tons  of  coal  furnish  which  con- 
tains 1.5  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  ? 

534. — If  nitrate  of  potash  and  nitrate  of  soda  were  the  same  price  per 
ton,  which  would  be  the  most  economical  source  for  nitric  acid  ?  Prove 
the  answer  by  equivalents. 

535. — If  it  requires  100  gr.  measures  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid  to  neu- 
tralize 60  grs.  of  potash,  what  amount  of  real  sulphuric  acid  does  it  con- 
tain? 


IN    ELEMENTARY   CHEMISTRY.  33 

536. — An  average  crop  of  turnips  removes  from  an  acre  of  land  54.5 
Ibs.  of  phosphoric  acid.  If  the  farmer  desires  to  restore  his  field  to  its 
original  fertility,  what  amount  of  bone  earth  (3  Ca  O,  P  06)  would  he 
have  to  employ  to  give  back  the  phosphoric  acid? 

537. — If  I  borrowed  300  Ibs.  of  nitrate  of  soda  of  a  nitric  acid  man- 
ufacturer, what  amount  of  nitrate  of  potash  must  1  return  to  replace  it? 

538. — What  amount  of  ammonia  would  be  required  to  precipitate  the 
sesquioxide  of  iron  from  20  Ibs.  of  sesquichloride  ? 

539. — An  average  crop  of  oats  removes  from  an  acre  of  land  198.9  Ibs. 
of  inorganic  matter;  a  crop  of  barley  removes  from  the  same  extent  of 
land  213.3  Ibs.  of  inorganic  matter.  In  the  198.9  Ibs.  of  mineral  matter 
removed  by  the  oats,  there  are  23.3  Ibs.  of  phosphoric  acid,  36.5  Ibs.  of 
potash,  and  3.8  Ibs.  of  chloride  of  potassium: — in  the  213.3  Ibs.  removed 
by  the  barley,  there  are  24.3  Ibs.  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  38.3  Ibs.  of 
potash.  If  the  farmer  desired  to  restore  his  field  to  its  original  fertility, 
what  weight  of  nitrate  of  potash,  chloride  of  potassium,  or  sulphate  of 
potash,  and  what  amount  of  bone  earth  (phosphate  of  lime,  3  Ca  0,  P  O5) 
would  he  have  to  employ  in  order  to  give  back  the  potash  and  phos- 
phoric acid  which  have  been  removed  by  the  oats,  and  what  amount 
would  he  likewise  have  to  employ  in  order  to  restore  fertility  after  the 
barley  crop  ? 

540. — If  mercury  be  added  to  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  the  silver 
will  be  precipitated  and  replaced  by  an  equivalent  of  mercury. — The  so- 
lution will  now  contain  nitrate  of  mercury,  from  which  the  mercury  may 
be  precipitated  by  copper; — the  solution  will  now  contain  nitrate  of  cop- 
per, from  which  the  copper  may  be  precipitated  by  lead; — the  solution 
will  now  contain  nitrate  of  lead,  from  which  the  lead  may  be  precipitated 
by  zinc.  {Suppose  we  had  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  containing  200 
grs.  of  the  nitrate,  how  much  metallic  silver  would  it  contain,  and  how 
much  mercury  would  it  require  to  precipitate  it;  how  much  copper 
would  it  require  to  precipitate  this  mercury;  how  much  lead  to  precipi- 
tate the  copper;  and  how  much  zinc  to  precipitate  the  lead? 

541. — If,  in  some  chemical  process,  baryta  were  employed,  and  an 
equivalent  of  strontia,  magnesia,  or  lime  could  be  substituted  for  it,  what 
would  be  their  relative  cost,  baryta  costing  24  cents  per  pound,  strontia 
48  cents,  magnesia  12  cents,  and  lime  2  cents  ? 

542. — How  much  disulphide  of  copper  would  be  required  to  effect  the 
complete  reduction  of  40  parts  of  suboxide  of  copper,  20  parts  of  protox- 
ide, and  30  parts  of  green  carbonate  of  copper  (malachite,  2  Cu  O, 
C  O2+H  O),  and  how  much  metallic  copper  would  be  obtained  ? 

543. — How  much  galena  would  be  required  to  reduce  a  mixture  of  20 
parts  of  protoxide  of  lead,  10  parts  of  red  lead  (minium,  Pb3  O4),  and  15 
parts  of  sulphate  of  lead  ;  and  how  much  metallic  lead  would  be  obtained  ? 

Deduce  from  the  following  per  centage  numbers  the  relative  number  of 
atoms  of  the  different  substances,  and  give  the  chemical  name  of  the 
compound  : — 

544._44.44  Of  c,  51  86  of  N,  3.70  of  H. 

545.— 70  of  Fe,  30  of  O. 

546._44.44  Of  S,  55.56  of  O.    - 

547.— 52. 14  of  Cr,  48.0  of  0. 


34  EXPERIMENTAL   EXERCISES   AND  PROBLEMS. 

548.— 25.96  of  Na  O,  66.55  of  S  O3,  and  7.49  of  H  O. 

549.— 11.92  of  Na  O,  53.46  of  B  03,  and  34.0  of  H  0. 

550.— 34.44  of  Sr  0,  35.76  of  N  O6,  and  29.8  of  H  O. 

551.— 9.82  of  NH8?  18.01  of  Na  0,  46.19  of  SO3,  and  25.98  of  HO. 

552.— 18.4  of  K  O,  15.6  of  Mg  O,  34.4  of  C  02,  and  31.6  of  H  0. 

553.— 54.13  of  K  0,  25.23  of  C  02,  and  20.64  of  H  O. 

554._68.5  of  Ba  O,  and  33.0  of  C  02. 

555.— 28.81  of  NH3,  55.93  of  C  02,  and  15.26  of  H  0. 

556.— 8.06  of  NH4,  44.21  of  Pt,  and  47.72  of  Cl. 

557.— 23.88  of  Cr2O3,  35.82  of  S03,  and  40.30  of  H  0. 

558.— 55.48  of  Pb  Cl,  and  44.51  of  Pb  O. 

559._9.42  of  K  O,  15.56  of  Fe2  03,  31.92  of  S  03,  and  43.1  of  H  0. 

560. — Deduce  the  rational  formula  for  hyposulphuric  acid  from  the 
following  numbers : — 

Sulphur 44.44        Potash 39.554 

Oxygen 55.56         Hyposulphuric  acid 60.446 

Hyposulphuric  acid 100.00         Hyposulphate  of  potash..  100. 000 

561. — Deduce  the  rational  formula  of  hyperchloric   (perchloric)  acid 
from  the  following  numbers: — 

Chlorine 38.7         Potash 34.05 

Oxygen 61.3         Hyperchloric  acid 65.95 

Hyperchloric  acid 100.0         Hyperchlorate  of  potash...  100.00 

562. — Deduce  the  rational  formula  for  hydrocyanic  acid  from  the  fol- 
lowing numbers : — 

Hydrogen 3.70         Mercury 79.36 

Carbon. 44.44         Carbon 9.52 

Nitrogen 51.86         Nitrogen 11.12 

Hydrocyanic  acid 100.00         Percyanide  of  mercury 100.00 

563. — Deduce  the  rational  formula  for  oxalic  acid  from  the  following 
numbers : — 

Carbon 26.66         Carbon 8.60 

Oxygen 53.33         Oxygen 17.19 

Water 20.00         Oxide  of  lead 74.21 

Oxalic  acid 99.99        Oxalate  of  lead 100.00 

564. — Find  the  formula  of  a  salt  having  the  following  percentage  com- 
position : — 

Magn  esium 9. 76 

Sulphur 13.01 

Oxygen 26.01 

Water 51.22 

100.00 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  SOLUBILITY  OF  SALTS.— Fresenius. 


W    3    «- 

5  ®  ?  tt 


Oxide  of  bismuth... 

^^^g^^^^^O^J^OOgJ 

p  :           ?»'~' 

a 
BASES. 

< 

||ala||lla||l|| 

:   :   gc^     i       :   S     3 

j 

:   •  «>*<  :       :       :   P      3 

•  i  i  i  1    i    ;      | 

j 

Arsenious. 

i 

bO 

bO  bO  bO  to  bO  bO  bO  bO  bO  bO  bO  bO  1    *-" 

tObObObObOI-'l-'h- 

Arsenic. 

to 

bobobobo:    H-     to  bo  bo  bo  bo  bo  bo 

bO  bO  bO  bO  1—  H-  h- 

Boracic 

bO 

:   bobobototo     toboi   bobobobo 

to  to  bo  bo  H-  t-  1— 

Carbonic. 

i— 

Chloric. 

:                  bO: 

bO 

bobobo^rtobotoi-'i—  :   (->  !   bcbototoi-'i-h-i-')— 

Chromic. 

K-                  H- 

Hydrochloric. 

05               tO 

to 

:   ;   :                      : 

Hydriodic. 

:   :   :                      : 

bobobobobobobobotobobototobobo     :    t->**  \w*    >->>-  >  i—  > 

Hy  drosulph  u  ric. 

bO 

:                   ^: 

Nitric. 

:                             bO; 

bo:    bo  bo  bo  to  to  to  i  to  to  i^i  bo  bo  *-•  to  M  bo  bo  bo  )-•  i—  >  H* 

Oxalic. 

to:   to  to  to  to  bo  to  :   bo  bo  to  bo  bo  bo  bo  to  bo  to  bo  to  i->  i—  h-> 

Phosphoric. 

Hi  !  —I  M  Z^zmmrz  ^ 

Silicic. 

r                   o.o.r 

Sulphuric. 

To  ascertain  the  solubility  of  any  salt  by  the  Table,  find  the  name  of  the 
base  in  the  upright  column,  and  that  of  the  acid  in  the  line  at  the  top:  the 
numb  T  placed  at  the  point  where  the  two  rows  meet  shows  whether  the 
salt  formed  by  their  combination  is  soluble  or  otherwise.  The  figure  1 
means  that  it  is  soluble  in  water  ;  2,  that  it  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble 
in  hydrochloric  or  nitric  acid;  and  3  that  it  is  insoluble  in  water  and  acids: 
1-2  signifies  a  substance  difficultly  soluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in  hydro- 
chloric acid  or  nitric  acid :  1-3,  a  body  difficultly  soluble  in  water,  and  of 
which  the  solubility  is  not  increased  by  the  addition  of  acids:  nnd  2-3  a 
substance  insoluble  in  water,  and  difficultly  soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid 
and  in  nitric  acid. 

(35) 


36  EXPERIMENTAL   EXERCISES   AND   PROBLEMS 


List  of  the  more  important  metallic  oxides  possessing  Basic 
properties. 

NAMES.  COLOR.  SYMBOLS. 

Potash White K  O 

NaO 


Soda., 
Ammonia 
Baryta .... 
Strontia... 

Lime 

Magnesia . 
Alumina.. 


.NH4O 
.BaO 

.SrO 
.Ca  O 
.MgO 

.A12  03 


Sesquioxide  of  Chromium Green Cr2  O3 

Protoxide  of  Iron Black Fe  O 

Sesquioxide  of  Iron Brownish-red Fe2  O3 

Oxide  of  Zinc White Zn  O 

Protoxide  of  Manganese... Greenish-grey Mn  O 

Protoxide  of  Nickle Grey Ni  O 

Protoxide  of  Cobalt u  Co  O 

Oxide  of  Silver Brown Ag  O 

Suboxide  of  Mercury Black Hg20 

Protoxide  of  Mercury Red HgO 

Oxide  of  Lead Yellow,  or  reddish-yellow Pb  O 

Oxide  of  Cadmium Brown,  or  yellowish-brown Cd  O 

Oxide  of  Copper Black Cu  0 

Teroxide  of  Bismuth Yellow Hi  O3 

Protoxide  of  Tin Black Sn  0 

Binoxide  of  Tin Light  straw  color Sn  Oa 

Teroxide  of  Antimony Greyish-white Sb  O3 

Teroxide  of  Gold Brown Au  O3 

Binoxide  of  Platinum "       PtO2 


List  of  the  Principal  Acid  Substances. 

OXYGEN  ACIDS. 

NAMES.  FORMULAE. 

Sulphurous  acid,  a  gas S  O8 

Sulphuric  acid  ) 

(Oil  of  vitriol)  J  a  liquid ;  freezes  at  31°  Fah. ;  boils  at  640°  F..  II  O,  SO, 
Nitric  acid  ")  a  liquid ;  freezes  at  about  — 40°  F. ;  boils  at 

(Aqua-fortis)  j  184°  F HO,  NO* 

Chloric  acid,  an  oily  fluid;  decomposed  at  100°  F HO,C1O6 

Oxalic  acid,  a  solid;  decomposed  above  320°  F....HO,  C2O3^=....  H  0,  O 
Phosphoric  acid,  a  solid ;  volatilizes  at  very  high  temperatures. ..3HO,PO4 
Carbonic  acid,  ) 

(choke-damp)  j  a  gas COj 


IN    ELEMENTARY   CHEMISTRY.  37 

Arsenious  acid,  a  solid;  volatilizes  at  380°  F As  O8 

Arsenic  acid,  a  solid;  decomposes  at  a  high  temperature  into 

AsO:Jand  O AsO$ 

Chromic  acid,  a  solid;  decomposes,  above  400°  F.,  into  Cr2O3 

andO CrO3 

Boracic  acid,  a  solid;  volatilizes  very  slowly  by  intense  ignition..  Br  O3 
Silicic  acid,  ) 

(Silica,  Quartz,  Sand)}  a  non- volatile  solid Si08 


HYDROGEN  ACIDS. 

NAMES.  FORMULA. 

Hydrochloric  acid  ) 

(Muriatic  acid,  spirit  of  salts)  J  a  gas H  CJ 

Hydrosulphuric  acid  ) 

(Sulphuretted  hydrogen)  j  a  gas H  S 

Hydrofluoric  acid,  a  very  volatile  acid,  which  boils  at  about  60°  F H  F 

Hydriodic  acid,  a  gas HI 

Hydrobromic  acid,  a  gas H  Br 

Hvdrocyanic  acid  )  a  very  volatile  liquid  which  ) 

"(Prussic  acid)    j      boils  at  80°  F.  |H,C2N= HCy 


List  of  the  most  important  Salts. 

OXYGEN  SALTS. 
NAMES.  FORMULA. 

Sulphites *MO,SO2 

Sulphates M  O,  S  O3 

Nitrates MO,  NO5 

Chlorates M  O,  Cl  O$ 

Oxalates M  O,  O 

Phosphates 3  M  O,  P  O5 

Carbonates M  O,  C  O2 

Arsenites 2  M  O,  As  O3 

Arseniates 3  M  O,  As  O5 

Chromates M  O,  Cr  O3 

Borates M  O,  B  O3 

Silicates M  0,  Si  O* 

HALOID  SALTS., 

NAMES.  FORMULA. 

Chlorides  (muriates) M  Cl 

Sulphides  (sulphurets) M  S 

Fluorides MF 

Iodides M  I 

Bromides M  Br 

Cyanides M  Cy 

*The  letter  M  stands  for  any  metal. 


TABLE  A. — Showing  the  Solubility  of  the  Basic  Oxides  and 
their  Hydrates. 


NAMES. 

SYMBOLS,     fl              NAMES. 

SYMBOLS. 

Soluble  in  Water. 

Hydrate   oH 

Hydrate    oP 

Potash       1     ,. 

KO,HO 

baryta 

Ba  0,  H  0 

Hydrate    of  f  whlte 

Hydrate     of 

. 

Soda          J 

Na  0,  H  O 

strontia 

•  white 

Sr  0,110 

Hydrate     of 

lime 

Ca  0,  II  0 

The  rest  are  insoluble  in  water. 

Soluble  in  Ammonia  and  the  Fixed  Alkalies. 

Hydrate  of  Zinc  (w 

kite) 

Zn  0,  H  O 

Insoluble  in  Ammonia  and  the  Fixed  Alkalies. 

Hydrate  of  the  ses- 

Suboxide     of 

mer- 

quioxide    of    iron 

cury  (forms 

no  hy- 

(reddish-brown) 

Fe203,3HO 

drate) 

Hg20 

Hydrate  of  bismuth 

Hydrate  of  the  pro- 

(white) 

BiO,HO 

toxide  of  mercury 

(yellow) 

HgO,HO 

Insoluble  in  Ammonia,  soluble  in  the  Fixed  Alkalies. 

Hydrate    of 

Hydrate  of  the  ses- 

alumina 

A12O3,  3  HO 

quioxide  of 

chro- 

Hydrate    of 

mium           (bluish- 

the  protox- 

green).     (This    is 

ide  of  tin          ,  . 

Sn  O,  H  0 

insoluble   in   boil- 

Hydrate   off"*"' 

ing    solutions    of 

the   perox- 

the fixed  alkalies  ) 

Or,  08,  3  HO 

ide  of  tin 

Sn  O2,  H  O 

Hydrate      of 

lead 

Oxide  of  an- 

(white).    This  hy- 

timony 

Sb08 

drate  is  only  very 

slightly  soluble  in 

the  fixed  alkalies. 

Pb  0,  H  O 

Soluble  in  Ammonia;   insoluble   in   Fixed  Alkalies.     The 

presence  of  ammoniacal  salts  prevents  some  of  them  from 

being  completely  precipitated  by  the  fixed 

alkalies. 

Hydrate   of    cobalt 
(pale  red) 

Co  0,  H  0 

Hydrate    of  copper 

(whitish-green). 

Cu  0,  II  O 

Hydrate   of  Nickle 

(If  the  fixed  alkalies 

(green) 

NiO,HO 

are  added  to  cold 

Oxide      of      Silver 
(forms  no  hydrate) 

AgO 

solutions  of  copper 
salts,  the  hydrate 

Hydrate  of  cadmium 
(white) 

Cd  0,  H  0 

is  precipitated;  if 
added    to   boiling 

solutions,  the   an- 

hydrous   oxide    is 

precipitated 

1 

(38) 


TABLE  A.— Continued. 


NAMES. 

SYMBOLS.                    NAMES. 

SYMBOLS. 

Insoluble  in  Ammonia  and  the  Fixed  Alkalies,  but  in  the 

presence  of  Ammonia  salts  the  volatile  alkali  cannot  pre- 

cipitate them,  and  the  fixed  alkalies  only  do  so  in  part. 

Hydrate  of  Magne- 

Hydrate of  protox- 

sia (white] 

Mg  0,  H  O 

ide  of  iron  is  of  a 

Hydrate    of     Man- 

white color,  which, 

ganese         (white), 

on  exposure  to  the 

speedily  becoming 

air,      finally      be- 

brown by  absorb- 

comes red,  owing 

ing   oxygen    from 

to   its  being    con- 

the   air,    and    be- 

verted    into     the 

coming    converted 

peroxide. 

Fe  O,  H  0 

into  a  higher  ox- 

ide. 

Mn  O,  H  O 

Ammonia  does  not  precipitate  the  hydrate  from  solutions  of  the  perox- 
ide of  mercury,  but  a  white  precipitate  having  the  following  composition 
(Hg  N  Ho  -f-  Hg  Cl) ;  the  fixed  alkalies  likewise  throw  down  the  same 
precipitate,  if  salts  of  ammonia  are  present,  but  in  the  absence  of  these 
salts  they  precipitate  the  hydrate. 

TABLE  B. —  Contrasting  the  Properties  of  Bases. 


OXIDE   OF   SILVER. 

SESQUIOX1DE  OF   IRON. 

LIME. 

(AgO.) 

(Fea03.) 

(CaO.) 

1.  —  Hydrochloric  acid 

1.  —  Hydrochloric  acid 

1.  —  Hydrochloric 

precipitates  silver  from 
its  neutral  and  acid  so- 

produces no  precipitate 
in  solutions  of  sesquiox- 

acid  does  not  precip- 
itate   lime    from    its 

lutions  in  the  form  of 

ide  of  iron,  because  ses- 

solutions,        because 

chloride      (Ag  Cl),     be- 

quichloride   of    iron    is 

chloride    of  calcium 

cause  chloride  of  silver- 

soluble. 

is  soluble. 

is    insoluble    in    neutral 

and  acid  solutions. 

2.  —  Ammonia    precip- 

2. —  Ammonia    precip- 

2. —  Ammonia  does 

itates     oxide    of    silver 
from  its   solutions  ;    but 

itates     sesquioxide     of 
iron  from  its  solutions, 

not   precipitate   lime 
from  its  solutions. 

an    excess   of  ammonia 

and    it    is    not    re-dis- 

re-dissolves it. 

solved  by  an  excess  of 

ammonia. 

3.  —  Oxalic    acid    pro- 

3. —  Oxalic  acid   does 

3.  —  Oxalic        acid 

duces  in  neutral,  but  not 
in  ammoniacal  solutions, 

not  precipitate  sesquiox- 
ide of  iron  from  its  so- 

precipitates   lime    a« 
oxalate  from  its  neu- 

a precipitate  of  oxalate 

lutions,  as  oxalate  of  the 

tral  and  alkaline  so- 

of silver,  as  oxalate  of 

sesquioxide    of   iron    is 

lutions. 

silver  is  soluble   in  am- 

soluble. 

monia. 

C39) 


TABLE  C.— Contrasting  the  Properties  of  Bases. 


OXIDE  OF  COPPER. 

ALUMINA. 

BARYTA. 

(CuO.) 

(A1203) 

(BaO.) 

1.  —  Hydrosulphuric 

1.  —  Hydrosulphuric 

1  .  —  Hydrosii  Iphuric 

acid  precipitates  from  its 

acid  does  not  precipitate 

acid  does  not  precip- 

acid   solutions    as    sul- 

alumina   from    its    acid 

itate  baryta  from  its 

phide  (Cu  S). 

solutions. 

solutions. 

2.  —  Ammonia    precip- 

2. —  Ammonia    precip- 

2. —  Ammonia  does 

itates    copper    from    its 

itates  alumina  from  its 

not  precipitate  bary- 

acid   solutions,    but    an 

solutions  in  the  form  of 

ta  from  its  solutions. 

excess   of  ammonia  re- 

hydrate   (A12O3,  3  H  0), 

dissolves  the  precipitate. 

and    an    excess  of  am- 

monia   does    not    redis- 

solve  it. 

3.  —  Sulphuric        acid 

3.  —  Sulpkvrie        acid 

3.  —  Sulphuric   acid 

produces  no  precipitate 
in   solutions   of  copper, 

produces  no  precipitate 
in  solutions  of  alumina, 

precipitates       baryta 
from  its  solutions,  be- 

because sulphate  of  cop- 

because sulphate,  of  alu- 

cause sulphate  of  ba- 

per is  soluble. 

mina  is  soluble. 

ryta  is  insoluble. 

TABLE  D. —  Contrasting  the  Properties  of  Bases. 


OXIDE   OF   SILVER. 

OXIDE  OF   COPPER. 

OXIDE  OF  ZINC. 

(AgO.) 

(CuO.) 

(ZnO.) 

1.  —  Hydrochloric  acid 

1  .  —  Hydrochloric  add 

1.  —  Hydrochloric 

precipitates  silver  from 

causes  no  precipitate  in 

acid    causes   no   pre- 

its neutral  and  acid  so- 

solutions of  copper. 

cipitate   in   solutions 

lutions  as  chloride.    . 

of  zinc. 

2.   —    Hydrosulphuric 

2.  —   Hydrosulphuric 

2.  —  Hydrosulphu- 

acid   precipitates    silver 

acid  precipitates  copper 

ric  acid  does  not  pre- 

from  its   acid   solutions 

from   its   acid   solutions 

cipitate  zinc  from  its 

as  sulphide  (AgS). 

as  sulphide  (Cu  S). 

acid  solutions. 

3.   Sulphide  of  ammo- 

3   Sulphide  of  ammo- 

3. —  Sulphide  of  am- 

nium precipitates  silver 
from  its  neutral  and  al- 

nium precipitates  copper 
from  its  neutral  and  al- 

monium    precipitates 
zinc  from  its  neutral 

kaline  solutions   as  sul- 

kaline solutions  as  sul- 

and alkaline  solutions 

phide. 

phide. 

as  sulphide  (Zn  S). 

(40) 


TABLE  OF  ELEMENTARY  SUBSTANCES,  WITH  THEIR 
SYMBOLS  AND  EQUIVALENTS. 


Name. 

Sym- 
bol. 

Equiv- 
alent. 

Name. 

Svm- 
bol. 

Equiv- 
alent. 

ALUMINUM 

Al 

13.7 

Molybdenum 

Mo 

48. 

ANTIMONY 

Sb 

120.3 

NICKLE 

Ni 

29.6 

ARSENIC 

As 

75. 

Niobium 

Nb 

48.8 

BARIUM 

Ba 

68.5 

NITROGEN 

N 

14. 

BISMUTH 

Bi 

210.3 

Osmium 

Os 

99.6 

BORON 

B 

10.9 

0  X  YGEN 

0 

8. 

BROMINE 

Br 

80. 

PALLADIUM 

Pd 

53.3 

Cadmium 

Cd 

56. 

PHOSPHORUS 

P 

31. 

Cresium 

Cs 

123.4 

PLATINUM 

Pt 

98.7 

CALCIUM 

Ca 

20. 

POTASSIUM 

K 

39. 

CARBON 

C 

6. 

RHODIUM 

Ro 

52.2 

Cerium 

Ce 

47. 

Rubidium 

Rb 

85.36 

CHLORINE 

Cl 

35.5 

Ruthenium 

Ru 

52.2 

CHROMIUM 

Or 

26.7 

Selenium 

Se 

39.5 

COBALT 

Co 

29.5 

SILICON 

Si 

21.3 

COPPER 

Cu 

31.7 

SILVER 

Ag 

108. 

Didymium 

D 

48. 

SODIUM 

Na 

23. 

FL  UORINE 

F 

19. 

STRONTIUM 

Sr 

43.8 

Glucinum 

G 

7. 

SULPHUR 

S 

16. 

GOLD 

Au 

197. 

Tantalum 

Ta 

68.8 

HYDROGEN 

H 

1. 

Tellurium 

Te 

64.2 

Indium 

In 

35.91 

Thallium 

Tl 

204. 

IODINE 

I 

127. 

Thorium 

Th 

59.6 

IRIDIUM 

Ir 

99. 

TIN 

Sn 

59. 

IRON 

Fe 

28. 

TITANIUM 

Ti 

25. 

Lanthanum 

L 

47. 

TUNGSTEN 

W 

92. 

LEAD 

Pb 

103.7 

URANIUM 

U 

60. 

Lithium 

Li 

6.95 

Vanadium 

V 

68.5 

MAGNESIUM 

Mg 

12. 

Yttrium 

Y 

68. 

MANGANESE 

Mn 

27.6 

ZINC 

Zn 

32.6 

MERCURY 

Hg 

100. 

Zirconium 

Zr 

33.6 

The  twenty-one  most  important  elements  are  distinguished  by  being 
printed  in  capital  letters  (as  COPPER) ;  those  next  in  importance  in  small 
capitals  (as  ANTIMONY);  those  which  are  either  of  rare  occurrence,  or  of 
which  our  knowledge  is  yet  very  imperfect,  are  printed  in  the  smallest 
type  (as  Cerium). — The  names  of  the  non-metallic  elements  are  printed  in 
italics  (as  HYDROGEN,  Selfnium}. — Several  substances  supposed  to  b^  ele- 
ments are  not  included  in  this  table,  as  Erbium  and  Terbium,  on  account 
of  their  rarity  and  the  little  that  is  known  about  them. 

(41) 


42 


EXPERIMENTAL    EXERCISES   AND    PROBLEMS 


Measures  of  Length. 


In  English 
inches. 

In  English 
feet  = 
12  inches. 

In  English 
yards  =3 
feet. 

In   English 
fathoms  =  6 
feet. 

In   English 
miles  = 
1760  yards. 

Millimetre  

0.03937 
0.39371 
3.93708 
39.37079 

0.003281 
0.032809 
0.328090 
3.280899 
32.808992 
328.089920 
3280.899200 
32808.992000 

letres. 
netres. 

0.0010936 
0.0109363 
0.1093633 
1.0930331 
10.9363310 
109.3633100 
1093.6331000 
10936.3310000 

1  yard=0.914 
1  mile=1.609 

0.0005468 
0.0054682 
0.0546816 
0.5468165 
5.4681655 
54.6816550 
546.8165500 
5468.1655000 

3835  metre. 
3149  kilometre. 

0.0000006 
0.0000062 
0.0000621 
0.0006214 
0.0062138 
0.0621382 
0.6213824 
6.2138244 

Metre     

3937.07900 
39370.79000 
393707.90000 

2.539954  centiti 
3.0479449  deck 

Kilometre  

Myriometre 

1  inch= 
1  foot= 

Measures  of  Surface. 


In  English 
square  feet. 

In  English 
square  yards 
=  9  square 
feet. 

In    English 
poles  = 
272.25  sq. 
feet. 

In  English 
roods  = 
10890  sq. 
feet. 

In  English 

acres  = 
43.rrtii  >  sq. 
feet. 

Centiare  or  sq.  metre... 
Are  or  100  sq.  metres... 
Hectare  or  10,000  sq.  \ 
metres  j 

10.764299 
1076.429934 
107642.993418 

1.  1960*3 
119.603326 
11960.332602 

0.039-5383 
3.9538290 
395.3828959 

0.0009885 
0.0988457 
9.8845724 

0.0002471 
0.0247114 
2.4711431 

1  square  inch=G.45136G9  square  centimetres. 
1  square  foot—  9.2899083  square  decimetres. 
1  square  yard=0.83(>09715  square  metre  or  centiare. 
1  acre              =0.40467102  hectare. 

Measures  of  Capacity. 


In   cubic 
Inches. 

In  cubic 
feet  = 
1728  cubic 
inches. 

In  pints 
34.6.'»923 
cubic 
inches. 

In  gallons 

=  8  pints 
=277.27:584 
cubic  inches. 

In  bushels 

=  8  Bilious 
=2218.19075 
cubic  inches. 

Millilitre  or  cubic  cen-  1 
timetre  j 

0.06103 
0.61027 
6.10271 
61.02705 
610.27052 
6102.70515 
61027.05152 
610270.51519 

o.ooooa5 

0.000353 
0.003532 
0.035317 
0.353166 
3.531658 
35.316581 
353.165807 

0.00176 
0.01761 
0.17608 
1.76077 
17.60773 
176.07734 
1760.77341 
17607.73414 

0.0002201 
0.0022010 
0.0220097 
0.2200967 
2.2009668 
22.0096677 
220.0966767 
2200.9667675 

0.0000275 
0.0002751 
0.0027512 
0.0275121 
0.2751208 
2.751208-5 
27.5120846 
275.1208459 

Centilitre    or    10    cubic  ) 
centimetres  j 
Decilitre    or    100     cubic  ) 

Litre  or  cubic  decimetre... 
Decalitre  or  centistere  
Hectolitre  or  decistere  
Kilolitre,    or    Stere,    or) 

Myriolitre  or  decastere.... 

1  cubic  inch—16.380176  cubic  centimetres. 
1  cubic  foot—  28.315312  cubic  decimetres  or  litres. 
1  gallon      -=4.543358  litres. 

IN   ELEMENTARY   CHEMISTRY. 

Measures  of  Weight. 


43 


In  English 

grains. 

In  trov 

ounces=480 
grains. 

Inav.i.du- 

pois  !bs.= 
7000  grains. 

In  cwts.= 
112  lbs.= 
784000  gr  . 

Tons= 

'J<l  c\vts.= 
15680000  grs. 

Milligramme  

0.01543 
0.15432 
1.54323 
15.43235 
154.32349 
1543.23488 
15432.34880 
154323.48800 

0.000032 
0.000322 
0.003215 
0.032151 
0.321507 
3.215073 
32.150727 
321.507207 

0.0000022 
0.0300220 
0.0002205 
0.0022046 
0.0220462 
0.2204621 
2.2040213 
22.0462126 

0.0000000 
0.0000002 
0.0000020 
0.0000197 
0.0001968 
0.0019684 
0.0196841 
0.1968412 

0.0000000 

o.oooocoo 

0.0000001 
0.0000010 
0.0000098 
0.0000984 
0.0009842 
0.0098421 

Gramme  

Decagramme  

Kilogramme  

Myriogramme  

1  grain    =0.064799  gramme.                        1  Ib.  avoir.  =0.453593  kilogr. 
Itroyoz.—  31.103496  grammes.                    1  cwt.          =50.802377  kilogrs. 

For  the  ready  conversion  of  gaseous  volumes  into  weights,  the  crith,  or 
standard  multiple,  proposed  by  Dr.  Hofmann  is  adopted.  The  crith  is  the 
weight  of  one  litre  or  cubic  decimeter  of  hydrogen  at  0°  C.  and  at  a  press- 
ure of  760  millimetres  of  mercury.  The  following  is  Dr.  Hofmann's  de- 
scription of  the  value  and  applications  of  this  unit: 

"  The  actual  weight  of  this  cube  of  hydrogen,  at  the  standard  temper- 
ature and  pressure  mentioned,  is  0.0896  gramme;  a  figure  which  I  ear- 
nestly beg  you  to  inscribe,  as  with  a  sharp  graving  tool,  upon  your  memory. 
There  is  probably  no  figure  in  chemical  science  more  important  than  this 
one  to  be  borne  in  mind,  and  to  be  kept  ever  in  readiness  for  use  in  cal- 
culation at  a  moment's  notice.  For  this  litre-weight  of  hydrogen— 0  0896 
gramme  (I  purposely  repeat  it) — is  the  standard  multiple,  or  coefficient, 
by  means  of  which  the  weight  of  one  litre  of  any  other  gas,  sim'ple  or 
compound,  is  computed.  Again,  therefore,  I  say,  do  not  let  slip  this 
figure — 0.0896  gramme.  So  important,  indeed,  is  this  standard  weight 
unit,  that  some  name — the  simpler  and  briefer  the  better — is  needed  to 
denote  it.  For  this  purpose,  I  venture  to  suggest  the  term  crith,  derived 
from  the  Greek  word  Kpity,  signifying  a  barley-corn,  and  figuratively  em- 
ployed to  imply  a  small  weight.  The  weight  of  1  litre  of  hydrogen  being 
called  1  crith,  the  volume-weight  of  other  gases,  referred  to  hydrogen  as 
a  standard,  may  be  expressed  in  terms  of  this  unit. 

"For  example,  the  relative  volume-weight  of  chlorine  being  35.5,  that 
of  oxygen  16,  that  of  nitrogen  14,  the  actual  weight  of  1  litre  of  each  of 
these  elementary  gases,  at  0°  C.  and  Om-  76  pressure,  may  be  called,  re- 
spectively, 35.5  criths,  16  criths,  and  14  criths. 

"So,  again,  with  reference  to  the  compound  gases;  the  relative  volume- 
weight  of  each  is  equal  to  half  the  weight  of  its  product-volume.  Hydro- 
chloric acid  (H  Cl),  for  example,  consists  of  one  vol.  of  hydrogen  +  1  vol. 
of  chlorine  =  2  volumes;  or,  by  weight,  1  +35.5  =  36.5  units;  whence  it 
follows  that  the  relative  volume-weight  of  hydrochloric  acid  gas  is  -^  = 
18.25  units  which  last  figure  therefore  expresses  the  number  of  criths 
which  one  litre  of  hydrochloric  acid  gas  weighs  at  0°  C.  temperature  and 
Om  76  pressure;  and  the  crith  being  (as  I  trust  you  already  bear  in  mind) 
0.0896  gramme,  we  have 

18.25X0.0896  =  1.6352 
as  the  actual  weight  in  grammes  of  hydrochloric  acid  gas. 


44         EXPERIMENTAL  EXERCISES  AND  PROBLEMS 

"So,  once  more,  as  the  product-volume  of  water-gas  (II2O)  (taken  at 
the  above  temperature  and  pressure)  contains  2  vols.  of  hydrogen  -(-  1 
vol.  of  oxygen,  and  therefore  weighs  2+  16=  18  units,  the  single  volume 
of  water-gas  weighs  ^  =  9  units ;  or,  substituting  as  before  the  concrete 
for  the  abstract  value,  1  litre  of  water-gas  weighs  9  criths ;  that  is  to  say, 
9X0.0896  gramme  =  0.8064  gramme. 


^=17  criths  =17X0-0896  gramme  =  1.5232  gramme  =  the  weight  of 
1  litre  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  at  standard  temperature  and  pressure. 

"  And  so,  lastly,  of  ammonia  (N  H^)  ;  it  contains  in  2  litres  3  litres  of 
hydrogen,  weighing  3  criths,  and  1  litre  of  nitrogen,  weighing  14  criths; 
its  total  product-volume  weight  is  therefore  3  +  14=17  criths,  and  its 
single  volume  or  litre  weight  is  consequently 

V7  =8.5  criths  =  8.5  X  0.0896  gramme  =  0.7616  gramme. 

"Thus,  by  the  aid  of  the  hydrogen-litre-weight  or  crith  =  0.0896 
gramme,  employed  as  a  common  multiple,  the  actual  or  concrete  weight 
of  1  litre  of  any  gas,  simple  or  compound,  at  standard  temperature  and 
pressure,  may  be  deduced  from  the  mere  abstract  figure  expressing  its 
volume-weight  relatively  to  hydrogen." 

THERMOMETRICAL    EQUIVALENTS. 

Rules  for  converting  Degrees  of  Fahrenheit  s,   Centigrade,  and  Reaumur's 
Thermometers  into  each  other. 

The  space  between  the  two  fixed  points  of  temperature  —  namely,  the 
freezing  and  boiling  of  water,  is  divided  by  Fahrenheit  into  180°,  by 
Centigrade  into  100°,  and  by  Reaumur  into  80°: 

^=9.     *$P=5.     £$  =  4:  therefore  9  F.  represents  5  C.  and  4  R. 


The  zero  of  C.  and  of  R.  is  at  the  freezing  of  water  :  the  zero  of  F.  is 
32°  F.  below  the  zero  of  C.  and  of  R. 

Therefore  —  1.  For  temperatures  above  the  zero  of  C.  (32°  F.) 

RULE.  EXAMPLES. 

F.  —  32     4-1.8  =  0.     .     .    40°  F.—  32(=8)-j-1.8  =  4°.44C. 
C.  X    1.8+32     =F.     .     .      4°.44C.  X1.8( 


2.  For  temperatures  below  the  zero  of  C.  (32°),  but  not  below  the  zero 
of  F.  (—  17°.  7  C.) 

RULE.  EXAMPLES. 

F.  -  32     -^    1.8  =  C.     .     .     20°F.-32(=  12)  —  1.8  =  —   6°.66C. 
—  C.X    1.8-32     =F.     .     .       6°.66C.  X  1.8  (=12)  -32  =  20°  F. 

3.  For  temperatures  below  the  zero  of  F.  (—  17°.  7  C.) 

RULE.  EXAMPLES. 

-    F.+  32     -i-    1.8  =  —  C.     .     20°F.  +  32(=52)-i-1.8  =  —  28°.8  C. 
—  C.X    1.8-32     =  —  P.     .     28°.8C.  X  1.8(=52)—  32  =  —  20°  F 

To  convert  Fahrenheit  and  Reaumur  into  each  other,  use  the  above 
rules,  only  substituting  for  C.  1.8,  R.  2.5.     ^  =2.5. 


IN   ELEMENTARY   CHEMISTRY.  45 

LAW    OF   GASEOUS    VOLUMES. 

LAW. — Equal  volumes  of  all  gases  and  vapors  contain,  at  the  same  tem- 
perature and  pressure,  an  equal  number  of  molecules. 

With  very  few  exceptions,  therefore,  the  molecules  of  all  compounds, 
no  matter  how  great  may  be  the  aggregate  volume  of  their  constituents, 
occupy,  when  compared  at  the  same  temperature  and  pressure,  one  uni- 
form volume,  which  is  exactly  the  same  as  that  tilled  by  one  molecule 
of  hydrogen.  Thus : 

vol.                               vol.  vols. 

1  of  Hydrogen-j-1  of  Chlorine form  2  of  Hydrochloric  acid. 

1  of  Hydrogeu-(-l  of  Bromine  vapor "    2  of  Hydrobromic  acid. 

2  of  Hydrogen-)- 1  of  Sulphur  vapor "    2  of  Sulphuretted  Hydrogen. 

2  of  Hydrogen  4-1  of  Oxygen  "  2  of  Steam. 

3  of  Hydrogen-j-1  of  Nitrogen "  2  of  Ammonia. 

4  of  Hydrogen-f-z  of  Carbon  vapor "  2  of  Marsh-gas. 

6  of  Hydrogen-j-1  of  Oxygen-j-2z  of  Car- 
bon vapor "  2  of  Alcohol  vapor. 

12  of  Hyilrogen-f-  1  of  Oxygen-j-5zof  Car- 
bon vapor "    2  of  Amylic  alcohol  vapor. 

In  order  to  indicate  the  difference  between  the  combining  measures  of 
the  simple  and  those  of  the  compound  gases  and  vapors,  we  subjoin  a 
short  table  of  some  of  the  more  important. 

Combining  Combining 

Gas.  Symbol.  or  Atomic  or  Atomic 

Weight.  Measure. 

Hydrogen H 1 D    or  1 

Oxygen  O 16 Q    or  1 

Nitrogen N 14 n    or  1 

Chlorine Cl 35.5 D    or  1 

Water H2O 18 DG  or  2 

Carbonic  Acid CO2  44 DD  or  2 

Nitric  Oxide NO 30 CO  or  2 

Ammonia,  gaseous N  H3  17 OL]  or  2 

Hydrochloric  Acid HC1 36.5 QD  or  2 

Ether    vapor   (a    double    atom    or     ( C2  H5 )  n  7/l               ,—,,—,       0 

molecule) 1  C.H.  [  ° 74 L 

Alcohol  vapor C2H60  46 DO  or  2 

Marsh  Gas CH4 16 DD  or  2 

Olefiant  Gas CHo 14 QD  or  2 

Acetic  Acid C2H4Oo 60 DD  or  2 

Chloroform C  H  Cl» 48.5 DD  or  2 

The  chief  point  to  which  the  student  should  attend  is,  that  the  num- 
bers expressing  combining  measures  count  from  hydrogen  as  unity,  as  is 
the  case  with  combining  weights. 

These  combining  measures  have  been  determined  by  observing  the 
volumes  which  the  various  elements  occupy  as  gases  or  vapors  when 
taken  in  their  atomic  proportions.  Thus : 

One  Atom.  Cubic  Inches. 

1     grain  hydrogen  at  60°  F.  and  30  inches  bar,  =  46.66 

16     grains  of  oxygen       "  =46.66 

35.5  grains  of  chlorine     "  =  46.66 

14     grains  of  nitrogen    "  =  46.66 


TABLE  OP  SIMPLE  AND  COMPOUND  GASES  AND  VAPORS. 


Gases  and  Vapors. 

Symbols. 

Atom 
Vol. 

Sp.  gr.  of 
air  1. 

Sp.  gr.  of 
hydrogen 

Weight  of 
100  c.  i.  in 
grains. 

Air     

1  000 

1448 

31  00 

Hydrogen                  .. 

H 

1 

00691 

1 

2  14 

Oxygen  .. 

o 

X 

1  1057 

16 

3424 

Nitrogen 

N 

1 

09674 

14 

29  96 

Chlorine    

Cl 

1 

24876 

36 

77  04 

Bromin  e  

Br 

1 

5  3898 

78 

166.92 

fluorine    

F 

1  ? 

19 

Iodine  

I 

1 

8  7066 

126 

269  64 

Sulphur 

S 

6  6336 

96 

205  44 

Selenium  

Se 

16  6390? 

240 

515  80 

P 

4  3555 

64 

136.96 

Carbon  

c 

T? 

04146 

6 

1284  ' 

Tellurium 

Te 

4  4190 

38  4 

136  98  • 

Arsenic  .        .  .            .. 

As 

10  3900 

150 

32209 

Aqueous  vapor  

HO 

06219 

9 

1926 

Protox.  of  nitrogen  ... 
Deutox.  of  nitrogen... 

NO 

N02 
NO4 

i 

2 
1 

1.5202 
1.0365 
1.5890 

22. 
15. 
46. 

47.08 
32.10 
49.15 

Ammonia  

NH3 

2 

05873 

8  5 

18  19 

Hypochlorous  acid.... 
Peroxide  of  chlorine.. 
Hydrochloric  acid  
Hydrobromic  acid.... 
Hydriodic  acid  

CIO 
C1O4 
HC1 
HBr 
HI 

1 
2 

2 
2 
2 

3.0404 
2.3494 
1.2783 
2.7294 
4  3878 

44. 
34. 
18.5 
39.5 
63  5 

94.16 
72.76 
39.59 
84.53 
135  89 

Hydrofluoric  acid  

HP 

2? 

10. 

Sulphurous  acid  .... 

SO, 

1 

22112 

32 

6848 

Hydrosulphuric  acid.. 
Hydroselenic  acid  
Phosph.  hydrogen  
Terchlor.  of  phosph... 
Pentachl.  of  phosph... 
Carbonic  oxide 

HS 
HSe 
PH3 
PC13 
PC15 
CO 

1 
1 
2 

2 
4 
] 

1.1747 

2.7950 
1.1925 
4.7420 
3.6600 
0  9674 

17. 
41. 
17.5 
70. 
53. 
14 

36.38 
86.64 
36.96 
147.00 
113.46 
2996 

Carbonic  acid  

CO2 

1 

1  5202 

22 

47.08 

Light  carb.  hydrogen. 
Olefiant  gas  .... 

CH2 

1 
1 

0.5528 
09674 

8. 
14 

17.12 

29.96 

Cyanogen  

NC2 

1 

1  7966 

26 

55.64 

Hydrocyanic  acid  
Tellur.  hydrogen  
Arsen.  hydrogen  

Alcohol           ..          . 

HCy 
TeH8 
AsH3 

C4  Hfi02 

2 
1 
2 

2 

0.9328 
4.4881 
2.7010 

1  6100 

13.5 
65. 
39. 

23 

28.89 
139.11 
83.73 

49  91 

Ether     

C4  H60 

1 

25567 

37 

80.25 

Chloroform               . 

C2  HC13 

9 

4  1805 

605 

129  59 

Oil  of  turpentine  

C»HM 

2 

4.6980 

68. 

145.63 

(46, 


BAUME'S  AND  TWADDELL'S  HYDROMETERS. 

Baum6's  hydrometer  is  much  used.  We  subjoin  a  Table,  in  which  the 
decrees  of  this  hydrometer  are  compared  with  the  ordinary  range  of  the 
specific  gravities  of  liquids. 

FOR    LIQUIDS    HEAVIER    THAN    WATER. 


Degrees. 

Sp.  grav. 

Degrees. 

Sp.  grav. 

Degrees. 

Sp.  grav. 

Degrees. 

Sp.  grav. 

0      ... 

1.000 

20     ... 

1.152 

40     ... 

1.357 

60      ... 

1.652 

1       ... 

1.007 

21     ... 

1.160 

41     ... 

1.369 

61     ... 

1.670 

2     ... 

1.013 

22     ... 

1.169 

42     ... 

1.381 

62     ... 

1.689 

3     ... 

1.020 

23     ... 

1.178 

43     ... 

1.395 

63     ... 

1.708 

4     ... 

1.027 

24     ... 

1.188 

44     ... 

1.407 

64     ... 

1.727 

5     ... 

1.034 

25     ... 

1.197 

45     ... 

1.420 

65     ... 

1.747 

6     ... 

1.041 

26     ... 

1.206 

46     ... 

1.434 

66     ... 

1.767 

7     ... 

1.048 

27     ... 

1.216 

47     ... 

1.448 

67     ... 

1.788 

8     ... 

1.056 

28     ... 

.225 

48     ... 

1.462 

68     ... 

1809 

9     ... 

1.063 

29     ... 

.235 

49     ... 

1.476 

69     ... 

1.831 

10     ... 

1.070 

30     ... 

.245 

50     ... 

1.490 

70     ... 

1.854 

11     ... 

1.078 

31     ... 

.256 

51     ... 

1.505 

71     ... 

1.877 

12     ... 

1.085 

32      .. 

.267 

52     ... 

1.520 

72     ... 

1.900 

13     ... 

1.094 

33     ... 

.277 

53     ... 

1.535 

73     ... 

1.924 

14     ... 

1.101 

34     ... 

.288 

54     ... 

1.551 

74     ... 

1.949 

15     ... 

1.109 

35     ... 

.299 

55     ... 

1.567 

75     ... 

1.974 

16     ... 

1.118 

36     ... 

.310 

56     ... 

1.583 

76     ... 

2.000 

17     ... 

1.126 

37     ... 

1.321 

57     ... 

1.600 

18     ... 

1.134 

38     ... 

1.333 

58     ... 

1.617 

19     ... 

1.143 

39     ... 

1.345 

59     ... 

1.634 

FOR    LIQUIDS    LIGHTER    THAN 

WATER. 

Degrees. 

Sp.  grav. 

Degrees. 

Sp.  grav. 

Degrees. 

Sp.  grav. 

Degrees. 

Sp.  grav. 

10     ... 

1.000 

23     ... 

0.918 

36     ... 

0.849 

49      ... 

0.789 

11    ... 

0.993 

24     ... 

0.913 

37     ... 

0.844 

50     ... 

0785 

12     ... 

0.986 

25     ... 

0.907 

38     ... 

0.839 

51     ... 

0.781 

13     ... 

0.980 

26     ... 

0.901 

39     ... 

0.834 

52     ... 

0.777 

14     ... 

0.973 

27     ... 

0.896 

40     ... 

0.830 

53     ... 

0.773 

15     ... 

0.967 

28     ... 

0.890 

41     ... 

0.825 

54     ... 

0.768 

16    ..: 

0.960 

29     ... 

0.885 

42     ... 

0.820 

55     ... 

0.764 

17     ... 

0.954 

30     ... 

0.880 

43     ... 

0.816 

56     ... 

0.760 

18     ... 

0.948 

31     ... 

0.874 

44     ... 

0.811 

57     ... 

0.757 

19     ... 

0.942 

32     ... 

0.869 

45     ... 

0.807 

58     ... 

0.753 

20     ... 

0.936 

33     ... 

0.864 

46     ... 

0.802 

59     ... 

0.749 

21     ... 

0.930 

34     ... 

0.859 

47     ... 

0.798 

60     ... 

0.745 

22     ... 

0.924 

35     ... 

0.854 

48     ... 

0.794 

61     ... 

0.741 

Twaddell's  hydrometer  is  employed  by  English  Chemical  manufacturers. 
The  degrees  on  Twaddell  are  readily  converted  into  equivalent  specific 
gravities,  by  multiplying  them  by  5,  and  adding  1000.  Thus  8°  Twad- 
dell, 8X5=40-1-1000=1040.  We  subjoin  a  Table  of  their  equivalents: 


Degrees. 

Sp.  grav. 

Degrees. 

Sp.  grav. 

Degrees. 

Sp.  grav. 

Degrees. 

Sp.  grav. 

1      ... 

1.005 

8      ... 

1.040 

15     ... 

1.075 

22       ... 

.110 

2     ... 

1.010 

9     ... 

1.045 

16     ... 

1.080 

23     ... 

.115 

3     ... 

1.015 

10     ... 

1.050 

17     ... 

1.085 

24     ... 

.120 

4     ... 

1.020 

11     ... 

1.055 

18     ... 

1.090 

25     ... 

.125 

5     ... 

1.025 

12     ... 

1.060 

19     ... 

1.095 

26     ... 

.130 

6     ... 

1.030 

13     ... 

1.065 

20     ... 

1.100 

27     ... 

.135 

7     ... 

1.035 

14     ... 

1.070 

21     ... 

1.105 

28     ... 

.140 

(47) 

BAROMETRIC    SCALE    IN    MILLIMETERS    AND    INCHES. 

In  foreign  scientific  works,  the  barometrical  pressure,  whether  for  me- 
teorological or  other  scientific  purposes,  is  represented  in  millimeters.  The 
subjoined  table  gives  the  corresponding  equivalents  in  English  inches : 
the  pressure  to  which  gases  are  submitted,  may  be  thus  easily  ascertained 
without  resorting  to  calculation :  762  mm  =  30  inches  mean  pressure. 


Mm. 

In.                           Mm. 

In.                       Mm. 

In. 

700 

=    27.560 

730 

— 

28.741 

760 

—  - 

29.922 

701 

=     27.590 

731 

— 

28.780 

761 

= 

29.961 

702 

=     27.638 

732 

— 

28.819 

*762 

— 

*3  0.000 

703 

=     27.678 

733 

JSS 

28.859 

763 

— 

30.040 

704 

=     27.717 

734 

— 

28.898 

764 

— 

30.079 

705 

=     27.756 

735 

— 

28.938 

765 

•  — 

30.119 

706 

=     27.795 

736 

— 

28.977 

766 

— 

30.1~58 

707 

=    27.835 

737 

— 

29.016 

767 

— 

30.197 

708 

=     27.876 

738 

— 

29.056 

768 

=3 

30.237 

709 

=    27.914 

739 

y= 

29.095 

769 

asc 

30.276 

710 

=    27.953 

740 

— 

29.134 

770 

_ 

30.315 

711 

=    27.992 

741 

— 

29/174 

771 

—  • 

30.355 

712 

=     28.032 

742 

—  - 

29.213 

772 

— 

30.384 

713 

=    28.071 

743 

s 

29.252 

773 

— 

30.434 

714 

=     28.111 

744 

— 

29.292 

774 

— 

30.473 

715 

=    28.150 

745 

— 

29.331 

775 

= 

30.512 

716 

=    28.189 

746 

— 

29.371 

776 

— 

30.552 

717 

=     28.229 

747 

— 

29.410 

777 

= 

30.591 

718 

=     28.268 

748 

— 

29.449 

778 

— 

30.631 

719 

=    28.308 

749 

— 

29.489 

779 

SB 

30.670 

720 

=    28.347 

750 

— 

29.528 

780 

. 

30.709 

721 

=     28.386 

751 

— 

29.567 

781 



30.749 

722 

=     28.426 

752 

— 

29.607 

782 

— 

30.788 

723 

=    28.465 

753 

— 

29.646 

783 

== 

30.827 

724 

=    28.504 

754 

—  - 

29.685 

784 

— 

30.867 

725 

=    28.543 

755 

= 

29.725 

785 

— 

30.906 

726 

=    28.583 

756 

-- 

29.764 

786 

BQ 

30.945 

727 

=    28.622 

757 

B3 

29.804 

787 



30.985 

728 

=     28.661 

758 

. 

29.843 

788 

= 

31.024 

729 

=    28.701 

759 

S== 

29.882 

789 

= 

31.063 

AQUEOUS    VAPOR   IN   GASES. 

Temp. 

A.  V.  by  vol.              Temp. 

A.  V.  by  vol.          Temp. 

A 

.  V.  by  vol. 

40° 

.00933 

54° 

... 

.01533 

68° 

... 

.02406 

41 

.00973 

55 

.015,85 

69 

.02483 

42 

.01013 

56 

.01610 

70 

.02560 

43 

.01053 

57 

.01693 

71 

.02653 

44 

.01093 

58 

.01783 

72 

.02740 

45 

.011:33 

59 

.01810 

73 

.02830 

46 

.01173 

60 

.01866 

74 

M 

.02923 

47 

.01213 

61 

.01923 

75 

.03020 

48 

.01258 

62 

... 

.01980 

76 

.. 

.0:5120 

49 

.01293 

63 

.02050 

77 

tt 

.03220 

50 

.01333 

64 

... 

.02120 

78 

M 

.  03:523 

51 

.01380 

65 

.02190 

79 

M 

.03123 

52 

.01426 

66 

... 

.03260 

80 

M 

.03533 

53 

.01480 

67 

... 

.02330 

(48) 


THIS  BOOK  •"• 


GENERAL  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA—  BERKELEY 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or  on  the 

date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 

HJun'54HK 


•Wf  2  8  1954  L 


\>' 

REC'D  LD 

28  1357 


REC'D  L.D 

2'63- 


lFM 


LD  21-100m-l,'54(1887sl6)476 


